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Diagram to illustrate minute structure of the cerebral cortex. Labels: A and B, neuroglia cells; C, cells with short axon (N) which breaks up in free arborisation; D, spindle-shaped cell in stratum zonate; E, small pyramidal cell; F, large pyramidal cell; G, cell of Martinotti; H, polymorphic cell; K, corticipetal fibers.

Minute Structure of Cerebral Cortex

Diagram to illustrate minute structure of the cerebral cortex. Labels: A and B, neuroglia cells; C,…

Diagram of the minute structure of the olfactory bulb.

Minute Structure of Olfactory Bulb

Diagram of the minute structure of the olfactory bulb.

Two coronal sections through the cerebral hemisphere of an orangoutang, in the plan of the anterior commissure. A, Section through the left hemisphere n a plane a short distance behind B, which is a section through the right hemisphere.

Coronal Sections of the Cerebral Hemispheres

Two coronal sections through the cerebral hemisphere of an orangoutang, in the plan of the anterior…

Diagram of the leading association bundles of the cerebral hemisphere. A, Outer aspect of hemisphere. B, Inner aspect of hemisphere.

Association Bundles of the Cerebral Hemispheres

Diagram of the leading association bundles of the cerebral hemisphere. A, Outer aspect of hemisphere.…

Diagrammatic sections of the ideal vertebrate. A, sagittal section showing the brain and spinal cord on the dorsal side of the notochord, and the alimentary canal and viscera on the ventral side of it. B, transverse section of the head, showing a gill arch and filaments of the left and a gill cleft on the right. C, transverse section of the trunk, showing the gut, the genital glands, and the excretory organs in the body cavity. D, transverse section of the tail.

Section of Vertebrate

Diagrammatic sections of the ideal vertebrate. A, sagittal section showing the brain and spinal cord…

Diagrams of the vertebrate brain. A, first stage, wit three brain vesicles; B, second stage; four brain vesicles; C, D, side view and sagittal section of fully formed brain without cerebral hemisphere.

Brain, Vertebrate

Diagrams of the vertebrate brain. A, first stage, wit three brain vesicles; B, second stage; four brain…

Diagrams of the vertebrate brain. E, H, transverse sections of the brain at different levels. E, the cerebrum; F, of the 'tween brain'; G, of the midbrain; H, of the hindbrain; I, J, side view and sagittal section of a brain with cerebral hemispheres.

Brain, Vertebrate

Diagrams of the vertebrate brain. E, H, transverse sections of the brain at different levels. E, the…

Dorsal view of vertebrate brain with the cavities of the right side exposed.

Brain, Vertebrate

Dorsal view of vertebrate brain with the cavities of the right side exposed.

The nervous system of the horse. Labels: 1, brain; 2, optic nerve; 3, superior maxillary nerve (5th); 4, inferior maxillary nerve (5th); 5, pneumogastric nerve; 6, medulla oblongata; 6', spinal cord; 7, right brachial plexus; 8, musculo-cutaneous nerve; 9, median nerve; 10, radial nerve; 11, cubital nerve; 12, pneumogastric nerve; 13, solar plexus; 14, semilunar ganglion; 15m lumbo-sacral plexus; 16, anterior crural nerve; 17, great sciatic nerve; 18, external popiteal nerve; 19, external saphenic nerve; 20, tibial nerve; 21, metatarsal nerve; 22, radial portion of median nerve; 23, metacarpal nerves; 24, digital branches; s, sympathetic chain; c, inferior cervical plexus; g, gutteral ganglion; Sp, great splanchnic nerve; pm; posterior mesenteric plexus; p, pelvic plexus.

Nervous System of the Horse

The nervous system of the horse. Labels: 1, brain; 2, optic nerve; 3, superior maxillary nerve (5th);…

An illustration of the median longitudinal section through anterior end of the sea lamprey. "a.v.o, Antrio-ventricular opening; br, Brain; br.o, Internal opening of gill sac; d.a, Dorsal aorta; d.c, Ductus cuvieri; h.v, Hepatic vein; i.j.v, Inferior jugular vein; N, Notochord; oes, Esophagus; olf, Olfactory organ; oc, Pericardium; p.c.v, Left posterior cardinal vein; pit, Pituitary tube; V, Ventricle; v, Velum." (Britannica, 1910)

Cross Section View of a Sea Lamprey

An illustration of the median longitudinal section through anterior end of the sea lamprey. "a.v.o,…

"Brain of Skate (Raia batis), an elasmobranchiate fish. B, from below, in part enlarged: ch, optic chiasm; h, pituitary body; n and v, vessels connected with h; k, saccus vasculosus; ß, pyrimids of medulla oblongata; a, I, II, V, same as in A." -Whitney, 1911

Skate Brain

"Brain of Skate (Raia batis), an elasmobranchiate fish. B, from below, in part enlarged: ch, optic chiasm;…

"Brain of Skate (Raia batis), an elasmobranchiate fish. A, from above; s, olfactory bulbs; a, cerebral hemispheres, united in the middle line; b, thalamencephalon; c, mesencephalon; d, cerebellum; aa, plaited bands formed by the restiform bodies; I, II, IV, V, first (olfactory), second (optic), fourth, and fifth pairs of cerebral nerves; f, medulla oblongata; w, a blood-vessel. " -Whitney, 1911

Skate Brain

"Brain of Skate (Raia batis), an elasmobranchiate fish. A, from above; s, olfactory bulbs; a, cerebral…

"Diagram of Vertebrate Encephalon ... in longitudinal vertical section. Mb, mid-brain; in front of it all is forebrain, behind it all is hind-brain; laminaterminalis, represented by the heavy black line in upper figure; Olf, olfactory lobes; Hmp, cerebral hemispheres; ThE, thalamencephalon; Py, pituitary body; FM, foramen of Monro; CS, corpus striatum; Th, optic thalamus; CQ, corpora quadrigemina; CC, crura cerebri; Cb, cerebellum; PV, pons Varolii; MO, medulla oblongata; I, olfactory nerves; II, optic nerves; III, point of ext from brain of the oculimotores; IV, of the pathetici; VI, of the abducentes; V-XII, origins of other cerebral nerves; 1, olfactory ventricle; 2, lateral ventricle; 3, third ventricle; 4, fourth ventricle." -Whitney, 1911

Encephalon

"Diagram of Vertebrate Encephalon ... in longitudinal vertical section. Mb, mid-brain; in front of it…

"Diagram of Vertebrate Encephalon ... in horizontal section. Mb, mid-brain; in front of it all is forebrain, behind it all is hind-brain; Lt, laminaterminalis; Olf, olfactory lobes; Pn, pineal body, or conarium; M, foramen of Monro; CS, corpus striatum; Th, optic thalamus; Cb, cerebellum; MO, medulla oblongata; I, olfactory nerves; II, optic nerves; 1, olfactory ventricle; 2, lateral ventricle; 3, third ventricle; 4, fourth ventricle; + is in the iter e tertio ad quartum ventriculum." -Whitney, 1911

Encephalon

"Diagram of Vertebrate Encephalon ... in horizontal section. Mb, mid-brain; in front of it all is forebrain,…

Head of brain coral with soft parts.

Brain Coral

Head of brain coral with soft parts.

Head of brain coral with corallum.

Brain Coral

Head of brain coral with corallum.

Crayfish, crawfish, or crawdads are freshwater crustaceans resembling small lobsters, to which they are related. They breathe through feather-like gills and are found in bodies of water that do not freeze to the bottom; they are also mostly found in brooks and streams where there is fresh water running, and which have shelter against predators. This disscetion of a crayfish shows the following: (b) brain, (h) heart, (i) intestine, (k) kidney, (l) liver, (n) nerve cord, (r) reproductive organ, (s) stomach.

Crayfish

Crayfish, crawfish, or crawdads are freshwater crustaceans resembling small lobsters, to which they…

Lancelet fish (Branchiostoma) is sometimes called amphioxus, the type of the class Leptocardii, is a little creature, half and inch to four inches long. A lancelet may be regarded as a vertebrate reduced to its lowest terms. Instead of a jointed backbone, it has a cartilaginous notochord, running from the head to the tail. A nervous cord lies above it, enclosed in a membranous sheath. No skull is present and the nerve cord does not swell into a brain There are no eyes and no scles. The mouth is a vertical slit, without jaws. In this diagram we see the California lancelet twice the natural size, showing (g) gills, (l) liver, (m) mouth, (n) nerve cord, (nc) notochord.

Lancelet

Lancelet fish (Branchiostoma) is sometimes called amphioxus, the type of the class Leptocardii, is a…

"Brain of rabbit. Ol, olfactory lobe; A, B, C, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes; Sy, Sylvian fissure." -Whitney, 1911

Rabbit Brain

"Brain of rabbit. Ol, olfactory lobe; A, B, C, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes; Sy, Sylvian fissure."…

"Brain of pig. Ol, olfactory lobe; A, B, C, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes; C1, a portion of temporal lobe; Sy, Sylvian fissure; In, insula or island of Reil." -Whitney, 1911

Pig Brain

"Brain of pig. Ol, olfactory lobe; A, B, C, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes; C1, a portion of…

"Brain of chimpanzee. Ol, olfactory lobe; A, B, C, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes; C1, a portion of temporal lobe; Sy, Sylvian fissure; In, insula or island of Reil; SOr, supra-orbital gyrus; SF, MF, IF, superior, middle, and inferior frontal gyri; R, fissure of Rolando; PPl, posteroparietal lobule; OPf, occipitotemporal sulcus; An, angular gyrus; 2, 3, 4, annectent gyri; AT, MT, PT, the anterior, middle, and posterior temporal gyri; SOc, MOc, IOc, the superior, middle, and inferior occipital gyri." -Whitney, 1911

Chimpanzee Brain

"Brain of chimpanzee. Ol, olfactory lobe; A, B, C, frontal, occipital, and temporal lobes; C1, a portion…

"Fig. 62 Skull of common fowl, enlarged. from nature by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. The names of bones and some other parts are printed, requiring no explanation; but observe the following points: The distinction of none of the bones composing the brain-case (the upper back expanded part) can be found in a mature skull. The brain is contained between the occipital, sphenoidals, squamosals, parietals and part of frontal; the ethmoidals belong to the same group of cranial bones proper. All other bones, excepting the three otic ear-bones, are bones of the face and jaws. The lower jaw, of five bones, is drawn detached; it articulates by the black surface marked articular with the prominence just above- the quadratic bone. Observe that from this quadrate a series of bones quadrato-jugal, jugal, maxillary-makes a slender rod running to the premaxillary; this is the zygoma, or jugal bar. Observe from the quadrate also another series, composed of pterygoid and palatine bones, to the premaxillary; this is the pterygo-palatine bar; it slides along a median fixed axis of the skull, the rostrum, which bears the loose vomer at its end. The under mandible, quadrate, pterygoid, and vomer are the only movable bones of this skull. But when the quadrate rocks back and forth, as it does by its upper joint, its lower end pulls and pushes upon the upper mandible, by means of the jugal and pterygo-palatine bars, setting the whole scaffolding of the upper jaw in motion. This motion hinges upon the elasticity of the bones of the forehead, at the thin place just where the reference-lines from the words "lacrymal" and "mesethmoid" cross each other. The dark oval space behind the quadrate is the external orifice of the ear; the parts in it to which the three reference-lines go are diagrammatic, not actual representations; thus, the quadrate articulates with a large pro-otic as well as with the squamosal. The great excavation at the middle of the figure, containing the cirlet of the unshaded bones, is the left orbital cavity, orbit, or socket of the eye. The mesethmoid includes most of the background of this cavity, shaded diagonally. The upper one of the two processes of bone extending into it from behind is post-frontal or sphenotic process; the under one (just over the quadrate) is the squamosal process. A bone not shown, the presphenoid, lies just in front of the oval black space over the end of basisphenoid. This black oval is the optic foramen, through which the nerve of sight passes from the brain-cavity to the eye. The black dot a little behind the optic foramen is the orifice of exit of a part of the trifacial nerve. The black mark under the letters "on" of the word "frontal" is the olfactory foramen, where the nerve of smell emerges from the brain-box to go to the nose. The nasal cavity is the black space behind nasal and covered by that bone, and in the oval blank before it. The parts of the beak covered by horn are only premaxillary, nasal, and dentary. The condyle articulates with the first cervical vertebra; just above it, not shown, is the foramen magnum, or great hole through which the spinal medulla, or main nervous cord, passes from the spinal column. The basioccipital is hidden, excepting its condyle; so is much of the basisphenoid. The prolongation forward of the basisphenoid, marked "rostrum," and bearing the vomer at its end, is the parasphenoid, as far as its thickened under border is concerned. Between the fore end of the pterygoid and the basisphenoidal rostrum, is the site of the basipterygoid process, by which the bones concerned articulate by smooth facets; further forward, the palatines ride freely upon the parasphenoidal rostrum. In any passerine bird , the vomer would be thick in front, and forked behind, riding like the palatine upon the rostrum. The palatine seems to run into the maxillary in this view; but it continues on to premaxillary. The maxillo-palatine is an important bone which cannot be seen in the figure because it extends horizontally into the paper from the maxillary about where the reference life "maxillary" goes to that bone. The general line from the condyle to the end of the vomer is the cranial axis, basis cranii, or base of the cranium. This skull is widest across the post-frontal; next most so across the bulge of the jugal bar." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Common Fowl

"Fig. 62 Skull of common fowl, enlarged. from nature by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. The names of bones…

"Fig 63 - Skull of a duck (Clangula islandica), nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary bone; b, partly ossified internasal septum; b', pervious part of nostril; c, end of premaxillary, perforated form numerous branches of second division of the fifth cranial nerve; d, dentary bone of under mandible; e, groove of nerves, etc.; f, a vacuity between dentary and other pieces of the mandible; g, articular surface; h, recurved "angle of the jaw;" i, occipital protuberance; j, vacuity in supraoccipital bone; k, muscular impression on back of skull; l is over the black ear-cavity; m, post-frontal process; n, quadrate bone; o, pterygoid; p, palatine; q, quadrato-jugal; r, jugal; s, maxillary; t, fronto-parietal dome of the brain-cavity; u; u, the lacrymal bone, immense in a duck, nearly completing rim of the orbit by approaching m; v, vomer; w, supra-orbital depression for the nasal gland; x, cranio-facial hinge; y, optic foramen; z, etc. interorbital vacuities." Elliot Coues, 1884

Duck Skull

"Fig 63 - Skull of a duck (Clangula islandica), nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary…

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating them is the centrum of any vertebra, bearing e, and epapophysis, and y, a hypapophysis; n, n, neurapophyses; d, d, diapophyses; ns, bifid neural spine; pl, pl, pleurapophyses; h, h, haemapophyses; hs, bifid haemal spine. Drawn by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, USA, After Owen. The Axial Skeleton of a bird or any vertebrated animal, that is, one having a back-bone, exhibits in cross-section two rings or hoops, one above and the other below a central point, like the upper and lower loops of a figure 8. The upper ring is the neural arch, so called because such cylinder encloses a section of the cerebro-spinal axis, or principal nervous system of a vertebrate (brain and spinal cord, whence arise all the nerves of the body, excepting those of the sympathetic nervous system). The lower ring is the haema arch, which similarly contains a section of the principal blood vessals and viscera.

Axial Skeleton

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating…

"Fig 64 - Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, x 9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof of the skull and the brain removed. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; c, notochord, running through the middle of the basilar plate or parachordal cartilage, in which are already visible the rudimentary ear-parts, cl, the cochlea, hsc, the horizontal semicircular canal; pts, the pituitary space, bounded by tr, the trabeculae, which come together before it to form the fronto-nasal plate, fn, in fig. 65; lg, lingula or bridge connecting trabeculae with parachordal cartilage; 5 notch afterward becoming foramen ovale for passage of parts of the fifth (trifacial) nerve; 9, foramen for hypoglossal nerve; q, separate cartilage forming the future quadrate bone." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Chick

"Fig 64 - Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, x 9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof…

"Skull of chick, second stage, in profile, brain and membranes removed to show cartilaginous formations, X4 diameters. eth, ethmoid, forming median nose-parts and inter-orbital septum; developing lateral parts, as ale, aliethmoid, als, aliseptum, aln, alinasal, pp, partition between nose and eye; pn, prenasal cartilage; ps, presphenoidal part of midethmoid; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, walling brain-box in front; pf, post-frontal, bounding orbit behind; pa, pg, palatine and pterygoid; q, quadrate; so, supra-occipital; eo, ex-occipital; oc, occipital condyle, borne upon basi-occipital, and showing nc, remains of notochord; these occipital bound the foramen magnum, and eo expands laterally to form a tympanic wing, circumscribing the external auditory orifice behind and below; hsc, psc, horizontal and posterior vertical semicircular canals of ear; fr, st, fenestra rotunda and fenestra ovalis, leading into inner ear, latter closed by foot of the stapes; mk, ch, bh, bbr, cbr, ebr, parts of jaw and tongue." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Two

"Skull of chick, second stage, in profile, brain and membranes removed to show cartilaginous formations,…

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running behind into the septum nasi; on each side of it the premaxillary, px, of which the (inner) palatal and (outer) dentary processes are seen (the upper nasal process hidden); mx, the maxillary, developing inner process, the maxillo-palatine, mxp; pa, the palatal, well-formed, articulating behind with rbs, the sphenoidal rostrum, its thickened under border, the parasphenoid; this will bear the vomer at its end when that bone is developed; j, jugal, joining mx and qj, the quadrato-jugal, joining j and q, the quadrate; mx to q, the jugal bar or zygoma; pg, the pterygoid, making with pa the pterygo-palatine bar, joining q and px; bt, the basitemporal, great mat of bone from ear to ear, underflooring the skull proper, as rbs, a similar formation, does further forward; ic, outer end of carotid canal, to run between the bt plate and true floor of skull, and enter brain cavity at original site of pituitary fossa; ty, tympanic cavity - external opening of ear; as, alisphenoid, bounding much of brain-box anteriorly, and orbital cavity posteriorly; psc, posterior semicircular canal of ear, in opisthotic bone, which will unite with the spreading eo, exoccipital, which will reach the cobdyle shown in the middle line, above the foramen magnum, fm, completed above by so, supra-occipital; 8, foramen lacerum posterius, exit of pneumogastric, glosso-pharyngeal and spinall accessory nerve; 9, exit of hypoglossal nerve, in basi-occipital." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Three

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible are seen: mk, remarks of meckelian rod; d, dentary bone; sp, splenial; a, angular; su, surangular; ar, articular; iap, internal articular process; pap, posterior articular process. In the skull: pn, the original prenasal cartilage, upon which is moulded the premaxillary, px, with its nasal process, npx, and dentary process, dpx; sn, septo-nasal cartilage, in which is seen nn, nasal nerve; ntb, nasal turbinal; the reference line crosses the cranio-facial suture, the face parts and cranial parts being nealry separated here by the nick seen in the original cartilaginous plate; eth, ethmoid; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, which will spread nearly throughout the dotted cartilaginous tract in which it lies, to form nearly all the interorbital septum; transverse thickening (in some birds) below the reference line eth will form the pre-frontal, or orbito-nasal septum; iof, inter-orbital foramen; ps, pre sphenoidal region, just above which is the orbito-sphenoidal region; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, with 5 foramen for division of the 5th (trifacial) nerve; f, frontal; sq, squamosal; p, parietal; so, superoccipital; asc, anterior semicircular canal; sc, a sinus (venous canal); ep, epiotic; eo, exoccipital; op, opisthotic; po, prootic, with 7 meatus auditorius internus, for entrance of 7th nerve; 8, foramen nfor vagus nerve; bo, basioccipital; bt, basitemporal; ic, canal (in original pituitary space; ) by which carotid artery enters brain activity; ap; basipterygoid process; ap to rbs, rostrum ofhte skull, being the parasphenoid bone underflooring the basisphenoid and future perpendicular plate of ethmoid." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible…

This apparatus features an annular graduated base holding the base parallel to the brain of the subject. Stating that the personality traits of a person can be determined by the shape of their head. Phrenology is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind

An Annular Graduated Base Phrenometer

This apparatus features an annular graduated base holding the base parallel to the brain of the subject.…

"The skeleton, more especially in the higher forms, is in the main similar to that of man, so that only a brief notice is necessary. In the skull considerable variation in regard to the proportionate length of the face to that of the brain—case (cranial portion) exists in the two sexes, owing to the general development of large tusks in the males." — Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, 1910

Chacma Baboon Skeleton

"The skeleton, more especially in the higher forms, is in the main similar to that of man, so that only…

"When an Egyptian died the friends of the deceased went at once to the embalmer, By him they were shown a set of models, that is, wooden images painted and wrapped in imitation of the different styles of mummies prepared at the establishment. The models were divided into three classes; first, second, and third; and among these the friends selected according to their rank and means. The dead body was then delivered to the embalmers, by whom the brain was removed through the nostrils. Then an incision was made in the left side with a sharp stone. Through this opening the entire viscera were removed, and being cleansed by washing with palm wine, were covered with pounded aromatics and deposited in four urns. The cavity of the body was filled with powdered myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant substances, and the wound carefully sewn up. The whole body was then packed for seventy days in salt and carbonate of soda, at the end of which time it was washed and then wrapped in linen bands anointed on the inner surface with a certain gum which acted as glue. The mummy was finally put into a wooden case in the form of a man, and delivered to the relatives, by whom it was set upright against the wall in one of the rooms of their house."—Ridpath 1885

Process of Embalming

"When an Egyptian died the friends of the deceased went at once to the embalmer, By him they were shown…

Also known as Butcher's broom. A shrub with flat shoots that give the appearance of stiff, spine-tipped leaves. It has been known to enhance blood flow to the brain, legs, and hands, and has been used to relieve constipation and water retention.

Ruscus Aculeatus

Also known as Butcher's broom. A shrub with flat shoots that give the appearance of stiff, spine-tipped…

Diagrams of how an image is displayed with a normal eye (top image), myopic or nearsighted eye (middle image), and a hypermetropic or far-sighted eye. In a human, the retina "sees" an image upside down and the brain rights the image.

Human Eye

Diagrams of how an image is displayed with a normal eye (top image), myopic or nearsighted eye (middle…

<i>Sipunculus nudus</i>. A species of unsegmented marine worm, commonly called the peanut worm. "B, Larval Sipunculus, about one twelfth of an inch long. o, mouth; oe, esophagus; s, caecal gland; i1, intestine with masses of fatty cells; a, anus; w, ciliated groove of intestine; g, brain with two pairs of red eye-spots; n, nervous cord; p, pore; t, t1, so-called testes; W, W, circlet of cilia." &mdash;Whitney, 1889

Peanut Worm - Interior Anatomy of Larva

Sipunculus nudus. A species of unsegmented marine worm, commonly called the peanut worm. "B, Larval…