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"A circle may be conceived as a polygon of an infinite number of sides. Thus to draw the involute of a circle divide it into a convenient number of parts, draw tangents at these points, lay off on these tangents the rectified lengths of the arch from the point of tangency to the starting point, and connect the points by a smooth curve." —French, 1911

Involute of Circle

"A circle may be conceived as a polygon of an infinite number of sides. Thus to draw the involute of…

"Divide the circumference into a number of equal parts, drawing the radii and numbering the points. Divide the radius No. 1 into the same number of equal parts, numbering from the center. With C as center draw concentric arcs intersecting the radii of corresponding numbers, and draw a smooth curve through these intersections." —French, 1911

Draw Spiral of Archimedes

"Divide the circumference into a number of equal parts, drawing the radii and numbering the points.…

"This is the curve of the heart cam for converting uniform rotary motion into uniform reciprocal motion." —French, 1911

Curve, Heart Cam

"This is the curve of the heart cam for converting uniform rotary motion into uniform reciprocal motion."…

"The upright single-stroke "commercial gothic" letter is a standard for titles, reference letters, etc. In the proportion of width to height the general rule is that the smaller the letters the more extended their width should be. A low extended letter is more legible than a high compressed one and at the same time makes a better appearance." —French, 1911

Upright Single Stroke Capitals

"The upright single-stroke "commercial gothic" letter is a standard for titles, reference letters, etc.…

"It (pen) should be held easily, in the position as illustrated, the strokes drawn with a steady, even motion and a slight uniform pressure on the paper, not enough to spread the nibs of the pen." —French, 1911

Side View of Position for Lettering Using Pen

"It (pen) should be held easily, in the position as illustrated, the strokes drawn with a steady, even…

"For the first practice draw in pencil top and bottom guide lines for 3/16" letters and with a 516 F or similar pen make directly in ink a series of vertical lines, drawing the pen down with a finger movement. This one stroke must be practised until the beginner can get lines vertical and of equal weight." —French, 1911

Top View of Position for Lettering Using Pen

"For the first practice draw in pencil top and bottom guide lines for 3/16" letters and with a 516 F…

"These strokes are the elements of which the single stroke letters are composed." —French, 1911

Pen Practice Strokes

"These strokes are the elements of which the single stroke letters are composed." —French, 1911

"The single stroke inclined letter made to a slope of between 60 and 70 degrees is preferred by perhaps a majority of draftsman. The order and direction of strokes for the capitals of this form will be the same as in the upright form, but these letters are usually not extended." —French, 1911

Inclined Capital Letters

"The single stroke inclined letter made to a slope of between 60 and 70 degrees is preferred by perhaps…

"In the inclined style the 2 to 5 direction lines should be drawn until one has become very proficient in keeping the lines to a uniform slant. The snap and swing of professional work is due largely to two things; keeping the letters full, and close together, and of uniform slope. beinners" — French, 1911

Inclined Capitals Practice Strokes

"In the inclined style the 2 to 5 direction lines should be drawn until one has become very proficient…

"The lower case or small letters of this style are drawn with bodies two-thirds the height of the capitals. This letter is generally known as the Reinhardt letter, in honor of Mr. Charles W. Reinhardt, Chief of the Drafting Department of the 'Engineering News,'..." —French, 1911

Basis of Reinhardt Letter

"The lower case or small letters of this style are drawn with bodies two-thirds the height of the capitals.…

"It is the minuscule or lower case letter reduced to its lowest terms, omitting all unnecessary hooks and appendages. It is very legible and effective, and after its swing has been mastered can be made very rapidly." —French, 1911

Reinhardt Letter Full Alphabet

"It is the minuscule or lower case letter reduced to its lowest terms, omitting all unnecessary hooks…

"The pyramid be revolved about an axis perpendicular to V, the front view will be unchanged and may be copied in the new position distance from the ground line to any point in the top view be unchanged, hence the new top view may be found by projecting up from the front view and across from the original top view" —French, 1911

Revolution About Axis Perpendicular to V

"The pyramid be revolved about an axis perpendicular to V, the front view will be unchanged and may…

"The pyramid be revolved about an axis perpendicular to V, the front view will be unchanged and may be copied in the new position distance from the ground line to any point in the top view be unchanged, hence the new top view may be found by projecting up from the front view and across from the original top view" —French, 1911

Revolution About Axis Forward or Back

"The pyramid be revolved about an axis perpendicular to V, the front view will be unchanged and may…

"A block revolved from its first position about an axis perpendicular to H through 45 degrees, then about an axis perpendicular to P through 45 degrees until the cut face MNO is parallel to the vertical plane. To avoid confusion it is well to letter or number the corresponding points as the views are carried along." —French, 1911

Successive Revolutions of Geometric Shapes

"A block revolved from its first position about an axis perpendicular to H through 45 degrees, then…

"The H projection of the line AB in the space is a line connecting the feet of all the perpendiculars from AB to the plane. These perpendiculars form what is known as the projecting plane. If this projecting plane to be revolved about its H trace, which is the H projection of the line, until it coincides with H, the line will be seen in its true length." —French, 1911

Revolutions into the Plane of Geometric Shapes

"The H projection of the line AB in the space is a line connecting the feet of all the perpendiculars…

"The distance of A and B below H is indicated on the V projection. Thus if to A∧h B∧h the perpendiculars A∧h A;and;r and B∧h B∧r be drawn, A∧r B∧r will be the true length of A B." —French, 1911

Construction of Geometric Revolution

"The distance of A and B below H is indicated on the V projection. Thus if to A∧h B∧h the perpendiculars…

"A circle may be shaded by shifting the center on a 45-degree line toward the lower right hand corner... by keeping the needle in the center after drawing the circle and springing the compass out and gradually pressing with the middle finger in the position as shown." —French, 1911

Shading a Circle Using Compass

"A circle may be shaded by shifting the center on a 45-degree line toward the lower right hand corner...…

"An oblique cone connecting two parallel pipes of different diameters... the true size of the base is not given in the top view and must be revolved until parallel to H."—French, 1911

Oblique Cone by Triangulation Connecting to Two Parallel Pipes of Different Diameters

"An oblique cone connecting two parallel pipes of different diameters... the true size of the base is…

"The intersection of two cylinders might represent a dome on a boiler. If the top view of cylinder A is divided into a number of equal parts the points will represent the top views of elements."—French, 1911

Intersection of Two Cylinders

"The intersection of two cylinders might represent a dome on a boiler. If the top view of cylinder A…

"If the cylinder A were to be developed a right section as at S—S would have to be taken, whose stretchout would be a straight line. If the cutting planes were taken at uniform distances apart, or at random, the elements would not be spaced uniformly on the stretchout but would be found as they project on the turned section of S—S." —French, 1911

Two Cylinders with Axes Not Intersecting

"If the cylinder A were to be developed a right section as at S—S would have to be taken, whose…

"The cone B would be developed by cutting a right section as S—S whose stretchout will be a circle are, location the elements on it and finding the true length of each from the vertex to the line of intersection." —French, 1911

Intersection of Two Cones

"The cone B would be developed by cutting a right section as S—S whose stretchout will be a circle…

"A series of planes as S—S are passed perpendicular to the axis of revolution, cutting out the circles shown on the end view. The points at which these circles cut the 'flat' are projected back as points on the curve." —French, 1911

Intersection of Surface of Revolution and Plane

"A series of planes as S—S are passed perpendicular to the axis of revolution, cutting out the…

"The illustration gives conventions for a number of different materials. Those in the first line are accepted by practically all who use conventional cross—hatching... Those given are part of the codes of government standards of the Bureau of Steam Engineering and the Bureau of Construction U.S.N." —French, 1911

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Material Symbols

"The illustration gives conventions for a number of different materials. Those in the first line are…

"Holding the pencil in a plane perpendicular to the line of sight, marking with the thumb the length of pencil which covers a line of the model rotating the arm, with the thumb held in position, until the pencil coincides with another line, and estimating the proportion of this measurement to the second line." —French, 1911

Estimating Lines using Pencil

"Holding the pencil in a plane perpendicular to the line of sight, marking with the thumb the length…

"An object in parallel perspective with one face in the picture plane is shown. At B is shown the top view of A with the cone of rays. C shows the picture plane detached and set forward in order that it may not interfere with the plan when revolved. D is the top view of C after the picture plane has been revolved." —French, 1911

Parallel Perspective

"An object in parallel perspective with one face in the picture plane is shown. At B is shown the top…

"Stair details and the like may be shown with sufficient clearness to the scales of 3/4" or 1". Mouldings and other mill work details are generally made full size. The turned or revolved section is often of use is showing moulding sections in position." —French, 1911

Stair Detail

"Stair details and the like may be shown with sufficient clearness to the scales of 3/4" or 1". Mouldings…

"A contour is a line on the surface of the ground which at every point passes through the same elevation, thus the shore line of a body of water represents a contour. If the water should rise one foot the new shore line would be another contour, with foot 'contour interval.'" —French, 1911

Shoreline Contour

"A contour is a line on the surface of the ground which at every point passes through the same elevation,…

"The contours are sketched lightly in pencil and the hachures drawn perpendicular to them, starting at the summit and making heavier strokes for steeper slopes. The rows of strokes should touch the pencil line, to avoid white streaks along the contours." —French, 1911

Shoreline Contour Map Method of Execution

"The contours are sketched lightly in pencil and the hachures drawn perpendicular to them, starting…

"The showing of relief by means of hill shading gives a pleasing effect but is very difficult of execution, does not give exact elevations and would not be applied on maps to be used for engineering purposes. They may sometimes be used to advantage in reconnoissance maps, or in small scale maps for illustration." —French, 1911

Shoreline Hill Shading by Hachures Contour Map

"The showing of relief by means of hill shading gives a pleasing effect but is very difficult of execution,…

"In water—lining a stream of varying width, the lines are not to be crowded so as to be carried through the narrow portions, but corresponding lines should be brought together in the middle of the stream as illustrated. Care should be taken to avoid any spots of sudden increase or decrease." —French, 1911

Water Lining Map Topography

"In water—lining a stream of varying width, the lines are not to be crowded so as to be carried…

"Illustrating the rule that an inclined illuminated surface is lightest nearest the eye and an inclined surface in shade is darkest nearest the eye." —French, 1911

Line Shading Application

"Illustrating the rule that an inclined illuminated surface is lightest nearest the eye and an inclined…

"A row of cylinders of different sizes. The effect of polish is given by leaving several brilliant lines, as might occur if light came in through several windows." —French, 1911

Series of Cylinder Line Shading

"A row of cylinders of different sizes. The effect of polish is given by leaving several brilliant lines,…

"A conical surface may be shaded by driving a fine needle at the apex and swinging a triangle about it, as in (A). To avoid a blot at the apex of a complete cone the needle may be driven on the extension of the side as in (B), or it may be shaded by parallel line as in (C)." —French, 1911

Different Cone Shading

"A conical surface may be shaded by driving a fine needle at the apex and swinging a triangle about…

"The figure on the left is from a French manuscript picture, representing Merlin. The lady on the window—seat is from the Loutrell Psalter. The other lady is from one of the bronze statues on the Tomb of King Edward III, and the figure between them is given authority of Fairholt." —Barfield, 1914

Nobles Talking Nursted Court

"The figure on the left is from a French manuscript picture, representing Merlin. The lady on the window—seat…

The Bretagne class battleship built by the French navy during 1913. The ship has a top speed 20 knots (23 mph) and operated by coal and oil.

Bretagne Class Battleship French Navy

The Bretagne class battleship built by the French navy during 1913. The ship has a top speed 20 knots…

The plan of the French fort, Metz Feste. The fort was created in 1871 by the German Empire. The fort have underground tunnels to connect the structures.

Metz Feste Fort Plan

The plan of the French fort, Metz Feste. The fort was created in 1871 by the German Empire. The fort…

An illustration of a 240 mm Trench Mortar used by the French during World War I, and designed by Dumezil—Batignolles. The mortar had a short barrel firing 192 lb. bombs.

240 mm Trench Mortar

An illustration of a 240 mm Trench Mortar used by the French during World War I, and designed by Dumezil—Batignolles.…

A World War I radio communication at Bordeaux. The United States Army built the radio station for a direct communication line.

French Radio Station at Bordeaux Built by American Army

A World War I radio communication at Bordeaux. The United States Army built the radio station for a…

The word "parachute" comes from "para", meaning "against" or "counter" in Ancient Greek, and "chute", the French word for "fall". Some modern parachutes are classified as semi-rigid wings, which are maneuverable and can make a controlled descent to break on impact with the ground.

DrogueParachute

The word "parachute" comes from "para", meaning "against" or "counter" in Ancient Greek, and "chute",…

An illustration of the Place de la Concorde in Paris, France. It is the largest square in the French capital. It was named Place Louis XV after the king of the time.

Place de la Concorde

An illustration of the Place de la Concorde in Paris, France. It is the largest square in the French…

An illustration of the Place de la Bastille which is a square in Paris where the Bastille Prison once stood. It was built between 1370 and 1383.

Place de la Bastille

An illustration of the Place de la Bastille which is a square in Paris where the Bastille Prison once…

An illustration of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France. This building is also known as Notre Dame de Paris which is French for Our Lady of Paris. It is the church which contains the official chair of the Archbishop of Paris.

Notre Dame Cathedral

An illustration of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France. This building is also known as Notre Dame…

An illustration of the Church of the Hotel des Invalides located in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France. This complex of buildings contains museums and monuments all relating to the military history of France.

Church of the Hotel des Invalides

An illustration of the Church of the Hotel des Invalides located in the 7th arrondissement of Paris,…

Portrait of Jean-Francois Champollion, a French scholar and decipherer of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Champollion

Portrait of Jean-Francois Champollion, a French scholar and decipherer of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

A French general who led a fleet to aid the American patriots, but failed in a few attacks.

Admiral D'Estaing

A French general who led a fleet to aid the American patriots, but failed in a few attacks.

"Down past the mouth of York River, where the French ships were blockading Cornwallis, into James River, and up the James to Jamestown, sailed the ships from Elkton, landing on the 25th, and marching to Williamstown."—Coffin, 1879

The Landing at Jamestown

"Down past the mouth of York River, where the French ships were blockading Cornwallis, into James River,…

A French-Italian cardinal who served as chief minister of France from 1642 until his death in 1661.

Cardinal Mazarin

A French-Italian cardinal who served as chief minister of France from 1642 until his death in 1661.

The French minister of finance from 1665 to 1683 under King Louis XIV. He brought the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

The French minister of finance from 1665 to 1683 under King Louis XIV. He brought the economy back from…

A French commander of the forces in North America during the Seven Years' War.

Montcalm

A French commander of the forces in North America during the Seven Years' War.

A British Army officer known for his victory over the French in Canada during the early 18th century.

James Wolfe

A British Army officer known for his victory over the French in Canada during the early 18th century.

A French social commentator who articulated the theory of separation of powers in government.

Montesquieu

A French social commentator who articulated the theory of separation of powers in government.

A French philosopher during the French Enlightenment.

Voltaire

A French philosopher during the French Enlightenment.

A philosopher whose ideas influenced the French Revolution and the American Revolution.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

A philosopher whose ideas influenced the French Revolution and the American Revolution.

The Queen of France from 1774 to 1792. She was executed by guillotine in 1793 at the height of the French Revolution.

Marie Antoinette

The Queen of France from 1774 to 1792. She was executed by guillotine in 1793 at the height of the French…

"The cleric wars a robe and ornamented mantle; the noble, a suit of black silk and a cap adorned with plumes; the representative of the Third Estate, a simple black suit without gold buttons or plumed cap."—Webster, 1920

Costumes of the Orders

"The cleric wars a robe and ornamented mantle; the noble, a suit of black silk and a cap adorned with…

A French revolutionary. He favored a constitutional monarchy built on the model of Great Britain.

Mirabeau

A French revolutionary. He favored a constitutional monarchy built on the model of Great Britain.

A French Roman Catholic clergyman who helped transform the Estates-General into the National Assembly.

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès

A French Roman Catholic clergyman who helped transform the Estates-General into the National Assembly.

The flashpoint of the French Revolution, where the prisoners of the Bastille were released by revolutionaries.

The Storming of the Bastille

The flashpoint of the French Revolution, where the prisoners of the Bastille were released by revolutionaries.

A French military officer who led the Garde Nationale during the French Revolution, as well as fought in the American Revolutionary War as a general.

Lafayette

A French military officer who led the Garde Nationale during the French Revolution, as well as fought…

"A contemporary cartoon representing the French people hammering to pieces with their flails all the emblems of the feudal system, including the knight's armor and sword and bishop's crosier and miter."—Webster, 1920

The Destruction of Feudalism

"A contemporary cartoon representing the French people hammering to pieces with their flails all the…