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"Ammodramus. Seaside Sparrow. Bill remarkably slender and lengthened for this family, with culmen toward end, gonys straight, and sometimes an evident lobation of the cutting edge of the upper mandible. Wings short and rounded, yet longer than tail; inner secondaries, though not elongate, reaching nearly to end of primaries when wing is closed; point formed by 2d-4th quills. Feet large and stout, reaching outstretched about to the end of tail; tarsus about equal to middle toe and claw in length; lateral toes of equal lengths, very short, their claws under reaching base of middle claw. Tail shorter or not longer than wings, much rounded, of narrow, stiffish, sharp-pointed feathers. Embracing small streaky marsh sparrows, especially of the sea-coast, but not exclusively maritime, as long supposed; remarkable for slenderness of the bill, sharp narrow tail-feathers, and stout feet fitted for grasping slender swaying reeds. Edge of wing bright yellow; a yellow spot of buff stripe on head; upper parts olive-gray or quite blackish, streaky." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Details of a Seaside Sparrow

"Ammodramus. Seaside Sparrow. Bill remarkably slender and lengthened for this family, with culmen toward…

An illustration of the skull of a megalosaurus. Megalosaurus is a genus of large meat-eating theropod dinosaurs of the Middle Jurassic period (Bathonian) of Europe (Southern England, France, Portugal). It is significant as the first genus of dinosaur (outside of birds) to be described and named.

Megalosaurus Skull

An illustration of the skull of a megalosaurus. Megalosaurus is a genus of large meat-eating theropod…

Megatherium ("Great Beast") was a genus of elephant-sized ground sloths that lived from two million to 8,000 years ago. A related genus was Nothrotheriops, which were primarily bear-sized ground sloths. The rhinoceros-sized Promegatherium is suggested to be the ancestor of Megatherium.

Megatherium Skeleton

Megatherium ("Great Beast") was a genus of elephant-sized ground sloths that lived from two million…

"Zamelodia. Song Grosbeak. Bill extremely heavy, with the lower mandible as deep as the upper or deeper, the commissural angle strong, far in advance of the feathered base of the bill, the rictus overhung with a few long stiff bristles. Wing with outer 4 primaries abruptly longer than 5th. Tail shorter than wing, even or scarcely rounded. Feet short and stout. Embracing two larger species, of beautiful and striking colors, the sexes dissimilar. Male black and white, with carmine-red or orange-brown; Female otherwise, but with lining of wings yellow. Brilliant songsters; nest in trees and bushes; eggs spotted." Elliot Coues, 1884

Song Grosbeak Bill

"Zamelodia. Song Grosbeak. Bill extremely heavy, with the lower mandible as deep as the upper or deeper,…

"Guiraca. Blue Grosbeak. Bill Commissure strongly angulated far beyond base, with deep under mandible and bristly rictus as in Zamelodia, but not so swollen, the culmen nearly straight. Wings long and pointed, folding about the middle of the tail; tip formed be the 2d-4th quills, 1st little shorter, 5th rapidly graduated. Tail shorter than wings, even. Tarsus rather less than middle toe and claw; outer lateral toe slightly longer than the inner, but scarcely reaching base of middle claw. One species, large, male blue, female brown." Elliot Coues, 1884

Blue Grosbeak Bill

"Guiraca. Blue Grosbeak. Bill Commissure strongly angulated far beyond base, with deep under mandible…

"Fig. 52 shows the totipalmate foot of a pelican. The totipalmate is a special case of palmation, in which all four toes are webbed; this characterizes the whole order Steganopodes." Elliot Coues, 1884

Pelican Foot

"Fig. 52 shows the totipalmate foot of a pelican. The totipalmate is a special case of palmation, in…

"Fig. 53 shows the lobate foot of a coot. In the lobate foot, a paddle results not from connecting webs, but from a series of lobes or flaps along the sides of the individual toes; as in the coots, grebes, phalaropes, and sun-birds. Lobation is usually associated with semipalmation, as is well seen in the grebes (Podicipedidae). In the snipe-like pharalopes (Phalaropodidae), lobation is present as a modification of a foot otherwise quite cursorial. The most emphatic cases of lobation are those in which each joint of the toes has its own flap, with a free convex border; the membranes as whole therefore present a scolloped outline." Elliot Coues, 1884

Coot Foot

"Fig. 53 shows the lobate foot of a coot. In the lobate foot, a paddle results not from connecting webs,…

"Fig. 53 bis - shows the lobate foot of a phalarope. In the lobate foot, a paddle results not from connecting webs, but from a series of lobes or flaps along the sides of the individual toes; as in the coots, grebes, phalaropes, and sun-birds. Lobation is usually associated with semipalmation, as is well seen in the grebes (Podicipedidae). In the snipe-like pharalopes (Phalaropodidae), lobation is present as a modification of a foot otherwise quite cursorial. The most emphatic cases of lobation are those in which each joint of the toes has its own flap, with a free convex border; the membranes as whole therefore present a scolloped outline." Elliot Coues, 1884

Phalarope Foot

"Fig. 53 bis - shows the lobate foot of a phalarope. In the lobate foot, a paddle results not from connecting…

"Quiscalus. Grackle. The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much of their time on the ground, where they walk or run instead of advancing by leaps." Elliot Coues, 1884

Grackle Foot

"Quiscalus. Grackle. The feet are large and strong, and the birds spend much of their time on the ground,…

"Fig 63 - Skull of a duck (Clangula islandica), nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary bone; b, partly ossified internasal septum; b', pervious part of nostril; c, end of premaxillary, perforated form numerous branches of second division of the fifth cranial nerve; d, dentary bone of under mandible; e, groove of nerves, etc.; f, a vacuity between dentary and other pieces of the mandible; g, articular surface; h, recurved "angle of the jaw;" i, occipital protuberance; j, vacuity in supraoccipital bone; k, muscular impression on back of skull; l is over the black ear-cavity; m, post-frontal process; n, quadrate bone; o, pterygoid; p, palatine; q, quadrato-jugal; r, jugal; s, maxillary; t, fronto-parietal dome of the brain-cavity; u; u, the lacrymal bone, immense in a duck, nearly completing rim of the orbit by approaching m; v, vomer; w, supra-orbital depression for the nasal gland; x, cranio-facial hinge; y, optic foramen; z, etc. interorbital vacuities." Elliot Coues, 1884

Duck Skull

"Fig 63 - Skull of a duck (Clangula islandica), nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary…

"Fig 72 - Hyoid bones of a goose, nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, cartilaginous end-piece of b, the great glosso-hyal, which has absorbed or replaced cerato-hyals or "lesser cornua"; c, basihyal, movably articulated with b, and combined completely with d, basibranchial, commonly called "urohyal;" e, ceratobranchial: f, epibranchial; e and f are together known as " thyrohayals," or "greater cornua." Elliot Coues, 1884

Goose Hyoid

"Fig 72 - Hyoid bones of a goose, nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, cartilaginous end-piece of…

"Speotyto. Burrowing Owls. tarsi long, about twice as long as the middle toe without its claw, very scant-feathered in front, bare behind; toes bristly. The long slim legs are quite peculiar.

The Beaks and Claws of a Burrowing Owl

"Speotyto. Burrowing Owls. tarsi long, about twice as long as the middle toe without its claw, very…

"Circinae. Harriers. Face surrounded with an incomplete ruff (as in most owls); orifice of ear about as large as the eye, and in some cases at least with a decided conch (in this picture). Bill rather weak, not toothed or notched. Bill thickly beset with many curved radiating bristles surpassing in length the cere, which is large and tumid; tomia lobed or festooned, but neither toothed nor notched. Nostrils ovate-oblong, nearly horizontal. Superciliary shield prominent. Tarsus long and slender, scutellate before and mostly so behind, reticulate laterally; toes slender, the middle with its claw much shorter than the tarsus; a basal web between the outer and middle; all tuberculate underneath; Claws very large and sharp, much curved. Wings very long and ample; 3d and 4th quills longest; 1st shorter than 6th; outer 3-5 (in our species 4) emarginate on inner webs; 2d-5th emarginate on outer webs. Tail very long, about 2/3rds as long as the wing, nearly even or rounded, the folded wings falling short of its end. " Elliot, Coues, 1884

Harrier Ear Parts

"Circinae. Harriers. Face surrounded with an incomplete ruff (as in most owls); orifice of ear about…

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating them is the centrum of any vertebra, bearing e, and epapophysis, and y, a hypapophysis; n, n, neurapophyses; d, d, diapophyses; ns, bifid neural spine; pl, pl, pleurapophyses; h, h, haemapophyses; hs, bifid haemal spine. Drawn by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, USA, After Owen. The Axial Skeleton of a bird or any vertebrated animal, that is, one having a back-bone, exhibits in cross-section two rings or hoops, one above and the other below a central point, like the upper and lower loops of a figure 8. The upper ring is the neural arch, so called because such cylinder encloses a section of the cerebro-spinal axis, or principal nervous system of a vertebrate (brain and spinal cord, whence arise all the nerves of the body, excepting those of the sympathetic nervous system). The lower ring is the haema arch, which similarly contains a section of the principal blood vessals and viscera.

Axial Skeleton

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating…

"Fig 55. - Actual section of the body in the thoracic region of a bird. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; c, centrum of a dorsal vertebra; hy, hypapophysis; d, diapophysis; z, zygapophysis; ns, neural spine; r, pleurapophysis, or vertebral part of a free rib, bearing u, uncinate process or epipleura; cr, haemapophyses; or sternal part of the same; st, section of the sternum or breast-bone (haemal spine). Designed by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, USA. This figure shows such a section, made across the thoracic or chest-region of the trunk. Here the upper ring (neural) is contracted, only surrounding the slender spinal cord, while the lower ring is expanded to enclose the heart and lungs." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Axial Skeleton

"Fig 55. - Actual section of the body in the thoracic region of a bird. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal;…

"Details of Engyptila albifrons (White-fronted Dove); head and foot natural size; wing and tail reduced.

White-fronted Dove Details

"Details of Engyptila albifrons (White-fronted Dove); head and foot natural size; wing and tail reduced.

"Ortyx. Quail. Outstretched feet reaching beyond end of tail. Bill black or blackish-brown. " Elliot Coues, 1884

Quail Foot and Bill

"Ortyx. Quail. Outstretched feet reaching beyond end of tail. Bill black or blackish-brown. " Elliot…

"Fig 64 - Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, x 9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof of the skull and the brain removed. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; c, notochord, running through the middle of the basilar plate or parachordal cartilage, in which are already visible the rudimentary ear-parts, cl, the cochlea, hsc, the horizontal semicircular canal; pts, the pituitary space, bounded by tr, the trabeculae, which come together before it to form the fronto-nasal plate, fn, in fig. 65; lg, lingula or bridge connecting trabeculae with parachordal cartilage; 5 notch afterward becoming foramen ovale for passage of parts of the fifth (trifacial) nerve; 9, foramen for hypoglossal nerve; q, separate cartilage forming the future quadrate bone." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Chick

"Fig 64 - Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, x 9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof…

"Skull of a chick, but seen from below. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; m, mouth; pts, pituitary space; fn, fronto-nasal plate; tr, ends of the trabeculae, free again after their union and bent strongly from the original axis of the trabeculae; n, external nostril; mxp, subocular bar of cartilage, or pterygo-palatine rod, to form pa, palatine, and pg, pterygoid bone, and other parts of the upper jaw, as the maxillary, jugal and quadrato-jugal; q, quadrate cartilage, same as seen in fig 64; mk, meckelian cartilage, to form lower jaw; these parts are in the first post-oral visceral arch; ch, cerato-hyal, and bh, basihyal, of second postoral arch; cbr, cerato-branchial, ebr-branchial, bbr, basi-branchial, of third post-oral arch; the parts of the second and third arch all going into the hyoid bone. 1, 2, 3, 1st, 2d, 3d, visceral clefts, whereof the 1st is to be modified into the ear-passages, and the others are to be obliterated." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Chick Below

"Skull of a chick, but seen from below. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; m, mouth; pts, pituitary…

"Fig 66 - Head of a chick, second stage, after five days of incubation, section in profile; x6 diameters. cvl, cv2, cv3, first, second, and third cerebral vesicles; 1, place of the first nerve, the olfactory; 2, place of second nerve, the optic; ic, internal carotid artery, running into skull at what was originally the pituitary space, now an opening bounded in front by the anterior, acl, behind the posterior, pcl, clinoid walls; nc, notochord; oc, occipital condyle, thence to pcl being the original parachordal cartilage, here seen in profile; eo, exoccipital; eth, ethmoid, with ps, its presphenoid region posteriorly, and pn, pre-nasal part; this whole plate afterward developing into parts of the nose and the partition between the eyes; pa, palatine; pg, pterygoid region; pa and pg reference lines are in the chick's mouth; mk meckelian cartilage (lower jaw); ch and bh, ceratohyal and basihyal parts of the hyoid or tongue bone." Elliot Coues, 1884

Chick Head

"Fig 66 - Head of a chick, second stage, after five days of incubation, section in profile; x6 diameters.…

"Squatarola. Four-toed Plover. A small but distinct hind toe, contrary to the rule in this family. Tail less than half as long as wing. Tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw. Tibia bare below, reticulate like the tarsus. Basal web between outer and middle toes. Upper plumage speckled, lower black or white; no rings or bars of color about head or neck. Legs dark-colored. Tail fully barred. Seasonal changes of plumage very; sexes alike." Elliot Coues, 1884

Four-toed Plover Bill and Hind Toe

"Squatarola. Four-toed Plover. A small but distinct hind toe, contrary to the rule in this family. Tail…

"Haematopus. Oyster-catcher. Bill peculiar - longer than tarsus, twice as long as head, constricted near the base, much compressed, almost like a knife-blade toward end, and truncate, something like a woodpecker's (it is an efficient instrument for prying open shells of bivalve mollusks), hard, straight or or deflected sideways, highly colored. Nasal groove very short, broad, and shallow; grooving of lower mandible slight; interramal space very short, scarcely a third the length of the long ascending gonys. Nostrils remote from the feathers, linear, close to edge of bill." Elliot Coues, 1884

Oyster-catcher Bill

"Haematopus. Oyster-catcher. Bill peculiar - longer than tarsus, twice as long as head, constricted…

"Another small family, characterized by the extreme length of the slender legs, and the extreme slenderness of the long acute bill, which is either straight or curved upward. Recurvirostra is a 4-toed, and full-webbed; the bill is decidedly recurved, flattened, and tapers to a needle-like point; the body is depressed; the plumage underneath is thickened as in water-birds. The species swim well. Himantopus is 3 toes, semipalmate, the bill nearly straight, and not flattened; in relative length of leg it is probably not surpassed by any bird whatsoever. " Elliot Coues, 1884

Avocets Head and Foot

"Another small family, characterized by the extreme length of the slender legs, and the extreme slenderness…

An illustration of the dorsal view of the scapula of a rabbit. "A, acromion; m, metacromion; g, glenoid fossa; c, coracoid process; v, vertebral border; s, spine." -Century, 1889

Dorsal View of the Scapula of a Rabbit

An illustration of the dorsal view of the scapula of a rabbit. "A, acromion; m, metacromion; g, glenoid…

"The post-oral arches of the house martin, at middle of period of incubation, lateral view, X14 diameters. mk, stumpof meckelian or mandibular rod, its articular part, ar already shapen; q, quadrate bone, or suspensorium of lower jaw, with a free anterior orbital process and long posterior otic process articulating with the ear-capsule, of which teo, tympanic wing of occipital, is a part; mst, est, sst, ist, sth, parts of suspensorium of the third post-oral arch, not completed to chy; mst, medio-stapedial, tp come away from teo, bringing a piece with it, the true stapes or columella auris; the oval base of the stapes fitting into the future fenestra ovalis, or oval window looking into the cochlea; sst, supra-stapedial; est, extra-stapedial; ist, infra-stapedial, which will unite with sth, the stylo-hyal; chy and bhym cerato-hyal and basi-hyal, distal parts of the same arch; bbr, br 1, br2, basi-branchial, epi-branchial and cerato-branchial pieces of the third arch, composing the rest of the hyoid bone; tg, tongue." Elliot Coues, 1884

House Martin Skull

"The post-oral arches of the house martin, at middle of period of incubation, lateral view, X14 diameters.…

"Skull of chick, second stage, in profile, brain and membranes removed to show cartilaginous formations, X4 diameters. eth, ethmoid, forming median nose-parts and inter-orbital septum; developing lateral parts, as ale, aliethmoid, als, aliseptum, aln, alinasal, pp, partition between nose and eye; pn, prenasal cartilage; ps, presphenoidal part of midethmoid; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, walling brain-box in front; pf, post-frontal, bounding orbit behind; pa, pg, palatine and pterygoid; q, quadrate; so, supra-occipital; eo, ex-occipital; oc, occipital condyle, borne upon basi-occipital, and showing nc, remains of notochord; these occipital bound the foramen magnum, and eo expands laterally to form a tympanic wing, circumscribing the external auditory orifice behind and below; hsc, psc, horizontal and posterior vertical semicircular canals of ear; fr, st, fenestra rotunda and fenestra ovalis, leading into inner ear, latter closed by foot of the stapes; mk, ch, bh, bbr, cbr, ebr, parts of jaw and tongue." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Two

"Skull of chick, second stage, in profile, brain and membranes removed to show cartilaginous formations,…

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running behind into the septum nasi; on each side of it the premaxillary, px, of which the (inner) palatal and (outer) dentary processes are seen (the upper nasal process hidden); mx, the maxillary, developing inner process, the maxillo-palatine, mxp; pa, the palatal, well-formed, articulating behind with rbs, the sphenoidal rostrum, its thickened under border, the parasphenoid; this will bear the vomer at its end when that bone is developed; j, jugal, joining mx and qj, the quadrato-jugal, joining j and q, the quadrate; mx to q, the jugal bar or zygoma; pg, the pterygoid, making with pa the pterygo-palatine bar, joining q and px; bt, the basitemporal, great mat of bone from ear to ear, underflooring the skull proper, as rbs, a similar formation, does further forward; ic, outer end of carotid canal, to run between the bt plate and true floor of skull, and enter brain cavity at original site of pituitary fossa; ty, tympanic cavity - external opening of ear; as, alisphenoid, bounding much of brain-box anteriorly, and orbital cavity posteriorly; psc, posterior semicircular canal of ear, in opisthotic bone, which will unite with the spreading eo, exoccipital, which will reach the cobdyle shown in the middle line, above the foramen magnum, fm, completed above by so, supra-occipital; 8, foramen lacerum posterius, exit of pneumogastric, glosso-pharyngeal and spinall accessory nerve; 9, exit of hypoglossal nerve, in basi-occipital." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Three

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running…

"Somateri mollissima. Somateri dresseri. Common Eider. Bill gibbous at base of upper mandible; outline of culmen variously curved; with long, acute or clubbed, tumid process extending in line with culmen variously curved; with long, acute or clubbed tumid process extending in line with culmen on each side of forehead, divided by extension of feathers on culmen. feathers of side of bill advancing to about under nostrils, far beyond those on culmen. No speculum. Male no black marks on chin. (mollissima - Frontal processes short, narrow, acute, parallel. Smaller.). (dresseri - Frontal processes long, broad, clubbed, divergent. Larger.)." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Bill of an Eider

"Somateri mollissima. Somateri dresseri. Common Eider. Bill gibbous at base of upper mandible; outline…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Cormorant. The knee-joint of a Cormorants. F, femur; P, patella; T, tibia; Fb, fibula

The Knee-joint of a Cormorant

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Cormorant. The knee-joint of a Cormorants. F, femur; P, patella; T, tibia;…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Sternum and the shoulder from the skeleton of a Cormorant." Elliot Coues, 1884

Cormorant Sternum and Shoulder

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Sternum and the shoulder from the skeleton of a Cormorant."…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Skull showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone; The style is somewhat tilted upward from its natural position." Elliot Coues, 1884

Cormorant Skull

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Skull showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone;…

"Chroicocephalus atricilla. Laughing Gull. Black-headed Gull. Bill longer than middle toe and claw, shorter than tarsus or head, moderately compressed, rather stout for this genus. Culmen and commissure both decurved and the end, the latter somewhat sinuate at the base. Gonys considerably concave in front of the angle, somewhat so between the angle and tip; although the angle id well defined, the tip of the bill is so decurved that a chord from tip to base does not touch it." Elliot Coues, 1884

Laughing Gull Bill

"Chroicocephalus atricilla. Laughing Gull. Black-headed Gull. Bill longer than middle toe and claw,…

"Sterna forsteri. Forster's Tern. Tail 5.00 - 8.00, forked 2.50-5.00." Elliot Coues, 1884

Tail of Forster's Tern

"Sterna forsteri. Forster's Tern. Tail 5.00 - 8.00, forked 2.50-5.00." Elliot Coues, 1884

"Sterna fuliginosa. Sooty Tern. feet stout; toes short; with much incised webs; tibia bare .70; tarsus 1.00; middle toe and claw 1.20; outer do. 1.05; inner do. .75; hind do. .30. "Elliot Coues, 1884

Sooty Tern Foot

"Sterna fuliginosa. Sooty Tern. feet stout; toes short; with much incised webs; tibia bare .70; tarsus…

"Sterna anaisthetikos. Bridled Tern. The foot of a Bridled Tern; Tarsus .85; middle toe the same, with the claw 1.20; outer toe 1.00; inner .75." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Foot of a Bridled Foot

"Sterna anaisthetikos. Bridled Tern. The foot of a Bridled Tern; Tarsus .85; middle toe the same, with…

'Rhynchops. Skimmer. Bill hypognathous Among the singular bills of birds that frequently excite our wonder, that of the skimmers as one of the most anomalous. The under mandible is much longer than the upper, compressed like a knife-blade; its end is obtuse; its sides come abruptly together and are completely soldered; the upper edge is as sharp as the under, and fits a groove in the upper mandible; the jawbone, viewed apart, looks like a short-handled pitchfork. The upper mandible in also compressed, but less so, nor is it so obtuse at the end; its substance is nearly hallow, with light cancellated structure, much as in a toucan; it is freely movable by means of an elastic hinge at the forehead." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Bill of a Skimmer

'Rhynchops. Skimmer. Bill hypognathous Among the singular bills of birds that frequently excite our…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible are seen: mk, remarks of meckelian rod; d, dentary bone; sp, splenial; a, angular; su, surangular; ar, articular; iap, internal articular process; pap, posterior articular process. In the skull: pn, the original prenasal cartilage, upon which is moulded the premaxillary, px, with its nasal process, npx, and dentary process, dpx; sn, septo-nasal cartilage, in which is seen nn, nasal nerve; ntb, nasal turbinal; the reference line crosses the cranio-facial suture, the face parts and cranial parts being nealry separated here by the nick seen in the original cartilaginous plate; eth, ethmoid; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, which will spread nearly throughout the dotted cartilaginous tract in which it lies, to form nearly all the interorbital septum; transverse thickening (in some birds) below the reference line eth will form the pre-frontal, or orbito-nasal septum; iof, inter-orbital foramen; ps, pre sphenoidal region, just above which is the orbito-sphenoidal region; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, with 5 foramen for division of the 5th (trifacial) nerve; f, frontal; sq, squamosal; p, parietal; so, superoccipital; asc, anterior semicircular canal; sc, a sinus (venous canal); ep, epiotic; eo, exoccipital; op, opisthotic; po, prootic, with 7 meatus auditorius internus, for entrance of 7th nerve; 8, foramen nfor vagus nerve; bo, basioccipital; bt, basitemporal; ic, canal (in original pituitary space; ) by which carotid artery enters brain activity; ap; basipterygoid process; ap to rbs, rostrum ofhte skull, being the parasphenoid bone underflooring the basisphenoid and future perpendicular plate of ethmoid." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary; aln, ali-nasal cartilage; en, septo-nasal; n, nasal bone; l, lacrymal; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, ps, prespeenoidal region; as, alisphenoid; f, frontal; p, parietal; sq, squamosal; so, superoccipital; eo, exoccipital; oc, occipital condyle; st, the cross-like object, the stapes, whose foot fits fenestra ovalis; q, quadrate; pg, pterygoid; qj, quadrato-jugal; jugal; pa, palatine; mx, maxillary. In the mandible: d, dentary; su, surangular; a, angular; ar, atricular; iap, internal angular process; pap, posterior angular process. 2, optic foramen; 5, foramen ovale, for inferior divisions of the 5th nerve." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull Profile

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary;…

"Side view of a woodpecker's skull, showing the long slender basihyal (bh), bearing slight elements at its fore end, no uroyhal, and extraordinarily long thyrohyals (cbr, ebr) curving up over back of skull and curling together around orbit of the right eye." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Woodpecker

"Side view of a woodpecker's skull, showing the long slender basihyal (bh), bearing slight elements…

"Top view of skull of Cloaptes, (flickers) showing thyrohyals running along the skull and into right nostril to end of the bill." Elliot Coues, 1884

Top View of a Woodpecker Skull

"Top view of skull of Cloaptes, (flickers) showing thyrohyals running along the skull and into right…

"F. Fibula; T, tibia, with a, its cnemial process, and P, large patella, of a grebe." Elliot Coues, 1884

Leg Bones of a Grebe

"F. Fibula; T, tibia, with a, its cnemial process, and P, large patella, of a grebe." Elliot Coues,…

"Dromaeognathous skull of ostrich, nat. size specimen no. 16,629, U.S. Nat Museum, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. RR, rostrum, beyond which the ossified nasal septum continues in the axis of the skull to the letters "Pmx." V, the short vomer, borne upon R, uniting laterally with Mxp, the broad maxillo-palatines; Pl, palatines, remote from rostrum, underrunning beyond Mxp, but not to Pmx. Pt, expanded scroll-like pterygoids, atriculating behind with Btp, the strong basipterygoid processes on the body (not rostum) of the sphenoid; they underlap R, but do not articulate there. Pmx, premaxillaries; Mx, maxillaries, whose ends run forward to opposite the letters "Pmx"; jugal; qj, quadrato-jugal; Qu, quadrate. (N.B. This is the most exceptional case of dromaeognathism. Each of the Ratite families - Struthionidae, Rheidae, Casuariidae, Dinornithidae, and Apterygidae, - as well as the Carinate family Tinamidae, offers a special case of such formation, as explained in the text.)." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull Structure of an Ostrich

"Dromaeognathous skull of ostrich, nat. size specimen no. 16,629, U.S. Nat Museum, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt,…

"Dromaeognathous skull of a tinamou (Tinamus robustus); copies by Shufeldt from Huxley. Letters as before; Mxp, maxillo-palatine. The tinamous, Dromaeognathae "have a completely struthious palate"; vomer very broad, uniting in front with broad maxillo-palatine plates as in Dromaeus; behind articulating with posterior ends of palatines and anterior ends of pterygoids, both of which are thus prevented, as in all Ratitae, from any extensive connection with the rostrum; basipterygoid processes springing from body of sphenoid, not from its rostrum, articulating with pterygoids very near the posterior or outer ends of the latter; head of quadrate with a single articular facet, as in Ratitae." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Tinamou

"Dromaeognathous skull of a tinamou (Tinamus robustus); copies by Shufeldt from Huxley. Letters as before;…

"Schizognathous skull of common fowl, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. Letters as before; Pa, palatine. Schizognathism is a kind of " cleft palate" shown by the columbine and gallinaceous birds, by the wader at large, and many of the swimmers. In this general case, the vomer, whether large or small, tapers to a point in front, while behind it embraces the basisphenoidal rostrum, between the palatines; these bones and the pterygoids are directly articulated with one another and with the basisphenoidal rostrum, not being borne upon the divergent posterior ends of the vomer; the maxillo-palatines, usually elongated and lamelar, pass inwards over (under, when the skull is viewed upside-down, as it usually is) the anterior part of the palatines, with which they unite and then bend backwards, along the inner edge of the palatines, leaving a broader or narrower fissure between themselves and the vomer, on each side, and do not unite with one another or with the vomer." Elliot Coues, 1884

Common Fowl Skull

"Schizognathous skull of common fowl, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. Letters as…

"Desmognathous skull of mallard duck, Anas boscas, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. Letters before. In the "bound-palate" type, the vomer in either abortive, or so small that it disappears; when existing it is usually slender and tapers to a point in front; the maxillo-palatines are united across the median line, either directly or by means of ossification in the nasal septum; the posterior ends of the palatines and the anterior ends of the pterygoids articulate directly with the rostrum (as in schizognathism). This type is simply and perfectly exhibited by a duck in which the maxillo-palatine is a broad flat plate united with its fellow in mid-line; the oval sessile basipterygoid facets are far forward, opposite the very ends of the pterygoids." Elliot Coues, 1884

Mallard Duck Skull

"Desmognathous skull of mallard duck, Anas boscas, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A.…

"Lunda cirrata. Tufted Puffin. Crests about 4 inches long, straw-yellow, some of the posterior feathers black at base; these bundles of silky, glossy feathers with very delicate shafts and loosened webs; they chiefly sprout from what corresponds to the furrow in the plumage of F. artica. Face white, broadly of this color on sides of head to beyond eyes (as far as the crests), narrowly across forehead and chin, the bill being thus entirely surrounded by white. Crown between the crests, and entire upper parts, excepting the extreme forehead and a line along the forearm, glossy blue-black. Entire under parts, excepting extreme chin, and including sides of hind head and sides of neck, sooty brownish-black, more grayish on the belly, the lining of wings smoky-gray, the under tail-coverts quite black. Wings and tail black, their inner webs brownish-black, the shaft of the primary whitish underneath near base. Bill, feet, and eye-ring vermilion-red; the basil parts of the bill when about to desquamate showing more yellowish or enamel color, or even showing the living color of the subjacent membrane. Rosette of mouth yellow. Claws black." Elliot Coues, 1884

Tufted Puffin Bill

"Lunda cirrata. Tufted Puffin. Crests about 4 inches long, straw-yellow, some of the posterior feathers…

"Saurognathous skull of a nesting Picus minor. x4 diameters, after Parker. Px premaxillary: dpx, its dentary process; ppx, palatal process; sn, septo-nasal; pa, palatine; pmx, peculiar palatal plate of maxillary of a woodpecker; nf, nasal turbinal; mx, maxillary; ipa, interpalatal spur of palatine bone; mxp, rudimentary maxillo-palatine, scarcely reaching palatine; smx, septo-maxillary, in several pieces; v, right vomer, its fellow opposite; pe, lower border of perpendicular plate of ethmoid, between vomers; epa, ethmoidal (inner) plate of palatine; mpa, medio-palatine; pg pterygoid; i, foramen for internal carotid; 8 for vagus nerve; 9, for hypo-glossal nerve." Elliot Coues, 1884

Woodpecker Skull

"Saurognathous skull of a nesting Picus minor. x4 diameters, after Parker. Px premaxillary: dpx, its…

"Aegithognathous skull of raven, Corvus corax, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. Letters as before. N.B. The reference line, V, goes to the ossified nasal septum borne upon the end of the vomer, which latter bone begins at the thickest part of the central projection. Mxp underlies V and overlies Pl, but touches neither." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Raven

"Aegithognathous skull of raven, Corvus corax, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A.…

"Mature stapes of fowl, about x4; after Parker. st, its foot, fitting fenestra ovalis; mst, main shaft, or medio-stapedial element; sst, supra-stapedial; est, extra-stapedial; ist, infra-stapedial, its end representing a rudimentary stylo-hyal; f, a fenestra in the extra-stapedial." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Ear Bone of Fowl

"Mature stapes of fowl, about x4; after Parker. st, its foot, fitting fenestra ovalis; mst, main shaft,…

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular extremity (or lagena); c, vestibule; g, its utricle; d, anterior of superior vertical semicircular canal; e, external or horizontal semicircular canal; f, posterior of inferior vertical semicircular canal; h, membranous canal leading into aqueduct of the vestibule; k, vascular membrane covering the scala vestibuli; opposite this, at i, are seen the edges of the cartilaginous prisms in the fenestra rotunda; from the edges of these cartilages proceeds the delicate membrane closing the opening of the cochlea (not shown in the fi.)" Elliot Coues, 1884

The Inner Ear of an Eagle

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular…

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular extremity (or lagena); c, vestibule; g, its utricle; d, anterior of superior vertical semicircular canal; e, external or horizontal semicircular canal; f, posterior of inferior vertical semicircular canal; h, membranous canal leading into aqueduct of the vestibule; k, vascular membrane covering the scala vestibuli; opposite this, at i, are seen the edges of the cartilaginous prisms in the fenestra rotunda; from the edges of these cartilages proceeds the delicate membrane closing the opening of the cochlea (not shown in the fi.)" Elliot Coues, 1884

The Inner Ear of a White-tailed Eagle

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular…

"Part of the superior vertical semicircular canal, showing its ampulla (which is the dilatation of the base of any semicircular canal), nerve of ampulla, artery connective tissue of the perilymph, X3, a, that part of the vestibule (alveus) next to the ampulla; b, the idlatation of the ampulla at its vestibular opening; c, where it passes into the canal proper; d, the canal, furnished with connective of the perilymph along its concave border and sides, as appears clearly at the sections e and f; g, nerve of the ampulla; h, artery of the connective tissue, running beneath it, remote from the wall of the duct." Elliot Coues, 1884

Eagle's Ampulal

"Part of the superior vertical semicircular canal, showing its ampulla (which is the dilatation of the…

"Cochlea, X3. a, external, b, internal, cartilaginous prism; c, membranous zone; d, saccular extremity of the cochlea, or lagena; e, vascular membrane; f, auditory nerve, its middle fascicle penetrating the internal cartilaginous prism, to reach the membranous zone by its terminal filaments; g, auditory nerve, its posterior fascicle, running to the most posterior part of the lagena; h, filament to ampulla of posterior or inferior vertical semicircular canal." Elliot Coues, 1884

Eagle Cochlea

"Cochlea, X3. a, external, b, internal, cartilaginous prism; c, membranous zone; d, saccular extremity…

"Section of the cochlea, X3. a, vestibular surface of external cartilaginous prism, extending into d, the lagena; c, section of the membranous zone; e, Huschke's process of the fenestra, which, with the margins of the cartilaginous prisms, affords attachment Treviranus; i, canals in posterior wall of the lagena, by which the nervous filaments enter its cavity." Elliot Coues, 1884

A Section of an Eagle's Cochlea

"Section of the cochlea, X3. a, vestibular surface of external cartilaginous prism, extending into d,…

"Muscles of a bird (accipiter nisus), after Carus, Tab. Anat. Comp., 1828, pl. 4. a, pharynx; b, trachea; e, hyoid bone; d, ear; e, humerous; f, radius; g, ulna; h, radial finger; i, tibia; k, metatarsus; l, hind toe; m, inner toe; n, middle toe; o, outer toe. 1, biventer cervicis, with central tendon 1 a, and upper 1 b, and lower 1 c, belly. 2, complexus. 3, flexor capitis lateralis. 4, flexor longus capitis. 5, extensor magnus cervicis. 6, descendens cervicis. 7, 7, semispinales. 8, flexorsuperior capitis. 9, flexor inferior or longus capitis. 10, 10, intertransversales. 11, levator coccygis. 12, depressor coccygis. 13, cruro-coccygeus (ilio-coccygeus?). 14, pubo-coccygeus. 15 ischio-coccygeus. 16, lateralis quartus (quadratus coccygis, to tail-feathers). 17, obliquus externus abdominis. 18, cucullaris (trapezius). 19, serratus magnus. 20, pectoralis major. 21, a, b, latissimus dorsi. 22, deltoid. 23, suprascapular. 24, coraco-brachialis. 25, biceps brachii. 26, supinatpr longus. 27, anconeus longus (part of "triceps"). 28, anconeus brevis. 29, anconeus brevissimus. 30 a, 30 b, tensor patagii, carpal and radial parts. 31, tensor patagii posterior. 32, extensormetacarpi longus. 33, extensor metacarpi brevis. 34 a, flexor digitorum sublimis. 34 b, flexor digitorum profundus. 34 c, flexor metacarpi radialis. 36, flexor (meta-) carpi ulnaris. 37, glutaeus maximus. 38, adductor femoris primus. 39, sartorius. 40, latissimus femoris. 41, gracilis = ambiens: only its tendon in sight. 42, vastus; 43, iceps cruris. 44, semimembranosus. 46,46,47, gastrocnemius. 48 digastricus (chief opener of the mouth). 49, temporal. 50, long ligament. 51, cutaneous muscle of scalp. 52, masseter. 53, a muscle of the hyoid bone. 54, tibialis anticus. 55, tibialis posticus. 56, extensor hallucis. 57, flexor hallucis. 58, flaxor digitorum profundus or perforans, seen in various places: long and short head, and several tendons. 59, extensor longus digitorum, tendons seen in various places 60, abductor digiti interni. 61,61,61, flexores digitorum perforati. 62, peronaeus. 63, abductor minimi digiti. 64, abductor hallucis." Elliot Coues, 1884

Eurasian Sparrowhawk Muscles

"Muscles of a bird (accipiter nisus), after Carus, Tab. Anat. Comp., 1828, pl. 4. a, pharynx; b, trachea;…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves bicarotidinae normales, with two carotids, both alike." Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"a, an inch of trachea, contracted to the utmost, the rings looking like alternating half-rings; b, the same, stretched to two inches, the rings evidently complete, with intervening membrane." Elliot Coues, 1884

Bird Trachea

"a, an inch of trachea, contracted to the utmost, the rings looking like alternating half-rings; b,…

"1, 2, left, two tracheal rings, separate. b; 1, 2, right hand, the same put together." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Tracheal Rings of a Bird

"1, 2, left, two tracheal rings, separate. b; 1, 2, right hand, the same put together." Elliot Coues,…

"Bony labyrinth at the bottom of the trachea of the male Clangula islandica, seen from behind." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Bony Labyrinth of a Sea Duck

"Bony labyrinth at the bottom of the trachea of the male Clangula islandica, seen from behind." Elliot…

"Very generally, in cranes and swans, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is excavated to receive it, and where it forms one or more coils before emerging to pass to the lungs. This curious winding is carried to the extreme in our Grus americanus, the whoopong crane, in which the wind-pipe is about as long as the whole bird, and about half of it - over two feet of it! - is coiled away in the breast-bone." Elliot Coues

Whooping Crane Windpipe

"Very generally, in cranes and swans, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is excavated…