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"This very extraordinary species from north-east Africa differs from all other rodents in the peculiar granulated plated which cover the temporal fossae, and from all the species of the section in the rudimentary condition of the clavicles as well as in the possession of an opposable hallux. The hair is very peculiar in structure, and forms a crest along the back and tail." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Lophiomys Imhausi

"This very extraordinary species from north-east Africa differs from all other rodents in the peculiar…

Lion crest

Lion Crest

Lion crest

"Front view of head of American Manatee, showing the eyes, nostrils, and mouth with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Manatee Face

"Front view of head of American Manatee, showing the eyes, nostrils, and mouth with the lobes of the…

"Front view of head of American Manatee, showing the eyes, nostrils, and mouth with the lip contracted." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Manatee Face

"Front view of head of American Manatee, showing the eyes, nostrils, and mouth with the lip contracted."…

"Stevenson's louvre-boarded box for the thermometers, which is now very widely used for temperature observations. The box is made of wood, and louvred all round so as to protect the thermometers inside from radiation, and at the same time secure as free a circulation of air as is consistent with a satisfactory protection from radiation. The box is painted white, both inside and outside, and screwed to four stout wooden posts, also painted white, firmly fixed in the ground. The posts are of such a length that when the thermometers are hung in position the bulbs of the minimum thermometer and hygrometer are exactly at the same height of 4 feet above the ground, the maximum thermometer being hung immediately above the minimum thermometer." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Thermometer Box

"Stevenson's louvre-boarded box for the thermometers, which is now very widely used for temperature…

"At sea the declination is generally observed by means of an azimuth compass invented by Kater. It consists of a magnet with a graduated compass card attached to it. At the side of the instrument opposite the eye there is a frame which projects upwards from the plane of the instrument in a nearly vertical direction, and this frame contains a wide rectangular slit cut into two parts by a wire extending lengthwise. The eye-piece is opposite this frame, and the observer is supposed to point the instrument in such a manner that the wire above mentioned shall bisect the sun's visible disk. There is a totally reflecting glass prism which throws into the eye-piece an image of the scale of the graduated card, so that the observer, having first bisected the sun's disk by the wire, must next read the division of the scale which is in the middle of the field of view." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Azimuth Compass

"At sea the declination is generally observed by means of an azimuth compass invented by Kater. It consists…

In this figure <em>BB</em> is the base line; <em>HH</em> the common horizontal or vanishing line; <em>C</em> the centre of view in that vanishing linel <em>LL</em> the vanishing line of the ascent; and <em>C1</em> the centre of view in that vanishing line.

Horizontal Line Diagram

In this figure BB is the base line; HH the common horizontal or vanishing line; C…

A diagram of the down-hill view to the eye.

Down-Hill View

A diagram of the down-hill view to the eye.

The perspective shown in this plate is parallel perspective; and the subject here intended to be represented is a flat and perfectly square surface, such as the floor of a room, a chess board, or any other such object. 1) The front edge of the given square; 2) One side of it receding to the vanishing point, which also is the point of sight; 3) The other side receding to the same point; 4) A line taken from one corner of the front edge, to the point of measuremen on the opposite side, and giving the perspective width or depth of the square at the intersection of the line 3; 5) A line drawn at the above intersection, and parallel to the front edge; this will give the back of the square. The lines 1, 2, 3, and 5 may then be strongly marked, and the figure will be thus completed. 6) This line is taken from the corner of the front edge to the opposite point of the measurement, showing how exactly either this line, o that marked 4, will give the perspective width of the square. It serves also to find the centre.

Parallel Perspective

The perspective shown in this plate is parallel perspective; and the subject here intended to be represented…

The perspective in this plate is "angular perspective," and the figure it represents is a flat square surface; its dimensions are supposed to be either twenty feet or twenty inches. 1) Two lines drawn from the nearest corner of theboard, to the horizontal line, and at a distance from each other equal to the thickness of the board; this fixes the vanishing point at 1. 2) A line drawn from the above vanishing point to the point of station. 3) A line taken at right angles to 2, from the point of station, and fixing on the horizontal line the position of the vanishing point 3. 4) Two lines drawn from the nearest corner of the board to the vanishing point 3, similarly to the previously drawn lines 1. 5) One point of measurement, obtained in the usual way, by the distance of 3 from the point of station. 6) The point of measurement. 7) The line of the geometrical scale, being a line drawn across the base of the nearest corner, and marked according to scale, twenty feet or twenty inches. 8,8) Lines taken from either end of the geometrical scale towards the point of measurement, but extending no farther than where they meet the lines 1,1, and 4,4. 9,10) Small perpendicular lines drawn at the above intersections, by which the width of the board is ascertained. 11) The side of the board opposite and really parallel to that marked 4, and therefore tending to the same vanishing point. 12) The back of the board, opposite and parallel to the front marked 1, and consequently tending to the same vanishing point. The lines 1,1; 4,4; 11 and 12, being strongly marked, the figure will be completed.

Angular Perspective

The perspective in this plate is "angular perspective," and the figure it represents is a flat square…

Two upright oblong figures are here represented in parallel perspective. They may be imagined to resemble the sides and fronts of houses, or their blank walls. One of the figures has two others attached to it of equal dimensions; and these additions might be similarly multiplied to any extent, by the numbers, 7, 8, 9 and 10, in the followig rules. 1) Lines forming to complete fronts of two separate and detached oblongs. 2) The geometrical scale at the base, marked twenty feet. 3) The ground lines of the fronts running to the vanishing point. 4) The top lines tending to vanishing point. 5) Lines from the geometrical scale, to the points of measurement, determining the perspective depths of the oblongs. 6) Perpendicular lines raised at the intersection of the lines 3 and 5, and giving the farthest upright corner lines of the oblongs. The two figures will thus be completed. The remaining lines inserted in the figure are intended to give two other oblongs (or rather their retiring sides) attached to the first, and supposed to be of the same dimensions. They are determined first by finding the centre 7 of the near corner line 1. From 7 a line is drawn to the vanishing point. A line marked 8 is then drawn from the near extremity of 1 through 6, where it is cut by 7; at its intersection with the bottom line 3, the perpendicular line 9 is raised, and another oblong front is completed. A line 10 is drawn, and determined as the line 8 was, from the top of 6, and by crossing the lines 7 and 3. The lines 13, 14, and 15, are inserted merely to show the inner side and back of the other oblong, as they would be seen were the object made of glass. Thus 13,13 are lines for the top and bottom of the back; formed by drawing them to the vanishing point; 14,14 are the top and bottom lines of the farthest side, found by straight lines being drawn from both ends of , until they meet 13,13; at which point of meeting the upright corner of the oblong are completed.

Parallel Perspective

Two upright oblong figures are here represented in parallel perspective. They may be imagined to resemble…

"A landscape is supposed to be viewed from the spot marked E; and that the spectator is desirous of representing on the plane of his paper a certain portion of the scene as seen by him fom this point. That portion constitutes his real picture. The distance of this picture,- or distance of the eye from the plane of the picture (which is the same thing), -means the distance intervening between the spectator's position, and that point on the ground directly in front of him, where the picture, which he is about to make, ought properly to commence. Upon the choice of a proper and judicious distance the beauty of his work will in a great measure depend. Suppose the landscape to be viewed from the point E, then that portion of the scene which the eye can easily take in, without moving the head, and without the slightest strain upon the optic nerve, will constitute the picture from that point. Now, under this condition the spectator will find that he does not distinctly see the ground immediately before him, but that he obtains a perfectly easy view of it only at some distance from his position at E. It is the space included between the point E (where he is placed), and the supposed point alluded to, and here marked S, that establishes the required distance of the picture, that is, the distance of the eye from the proposed picture. For instance, let S be that point on the ground immediately in front of the eye, and if through S a straight line be supposed to be drawn, perpendicular to the distance ES, this line will pass through and determine the foremost objects of the proposed picture, and therefore at this line the picture must commence."

Distance

"A landscape is supposed to be viewed from the spot marked E; and that the spectator is desirous of…

That an accurate notion of the vertical line may be obtained, the plane of the picture must be supposed to be perpendicular to the horizontal plane. If a straight line be drawn from the spectator's eye, perpendicular to this plane of the picture, that line will fall upon the plane at a point in the horizontal line directly opposite to the eye. This point, C, is called the centre of the picture, or centre of view. In reference to the eye of the spectator, every straight line perpendicular to the plane of the picture appears to converge towards this point or centre. The line which, drawn from the eye of the spectator, determines this centre C, is called the vertical line. It is a straight line through S, perpendicular to the horizontal line, and the base of the picture; and is represented by the line EC.

Vertical Line

That an accurate notion of the vertical line may be obtained, the plane of the picture must be supposed…

A side-view of the skull.

Skull

A side-view of the skull.

A front-view of the skull.

Skull

A front-view of the skull.

Muscles of the back.

Back Muscles

Muscles of the back.

Front view of head of bee. <em>a</em>antenna; <em>e</em>, compound eye; the three black dots are the simple eyes.

Bee Head

Front view of head of bee. aantenna; e, compound eye; the three black dots are the…

Cutting back or shearing the plants.

Shearing

Cutting back or shearing the plants.

The skin split along the back and the adult emerging.

Molting of a Grasshopper

The skin split along the back and the adult emerging.

The crab louse can live in almost any form of human hair, leading to its other common name of pubic louse.

Crab-louse

The crab louse can live in almost any form of human hair, leading to its other common name of pubic…

View of the Antarctic continent

Antarctica

View of the Antarctic continent

A kind free-falling tool

Free-Falling

A kind free-falling tool

A king with the earliest bow of the Cremaillere type from the 11th century

Bow

A king with the earliest bow of the Cremaillere type from the 11th century

Front view of the medulla, pons and mesencephalon of a full-time human foetus.

Brain

Front view of the medulla, pons and mesencephalon of a full-time human foetus.

Back view of the medulla, pons and mesencephalon of a full-time human foetus

Brain

Back view of the medulla, pons and mesencephalon of a full-time human foetus

Brain of Petromyzon marinus (sea lamprey),dorsal view.

Brain of Sea Lamprey

Brain of Petromyzon marinus (sea lamprey),dorsal view.

Brain of Petromyzon marinus (dorsal view).

Brain

Brain of Petromyzon marinus (dorsal view).

Ventral view of the brain of ornithorynchus

Brain

Ventral view of the brain of ornithorynchus

The side view of a cotton worm.

Cotton Worms

The side view of a cotton worm.

Dorsal view of the brain of ornithorynchus

Brain

Dorsal view of the brain of ornithorynchus

Mesial view of the brain of ornithorynchus

Brain

Mesial view of the brain of ornithorynchus

The top view of a cotton worm

Cotton Worms

The top view of a cotton worm

The side and top view of an egg from the Anisopteryx pometaria.

Canker Worm

The side and top view of an egg from the Anisopteryx pometaria.

Lateral view of the brain of ornithorynchus

Brain

Lateral view of the brain of ornithorynchus

Mesial view of the brain of the tasmanian devil

Brain

Mesial view of the brain of the tasmanian devil

Dorsal view of the brain of a ratel

Brain

Dorsal view of the brain of a ratel

Lateral view of the brain of a ratel

Brain

Lateral view of the brain of a ratel

Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla

Brain

Lateral view of cerebral hemisphere of Gorilla

The side and top view of the segments of the Canker Worm.

Canker Worm Segments

The side and top view of the segments of the Canker Worm.

Canute the Great, Danish king of England, Denmark and Norway

Canute by the Sea-Shore

Canute the Great, Danish king of England, Denmark and Norway

The death of William Rufus, the third son of William the Conqueror and King of England from 1087 until 1100. William Rufus died while hunting in New Forest when he was shot with an arrow through his heart.

Death of William Rufus

The death of William Rufus, the third son of William the Conqueror and King of England from 1087 until…

Raleigh's plan for colonization in Virginia in North America ended in failure at Roanoke Island, but paved the way for subsequent colonies.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Raleigh's plan for colonization in Virginia in North America ended in failure at Roanoke Island, but…

He is sometimes called the Red King, but more commonly William Rufus. Things went worse than ever with the poor English in his time; for at least William the Conqueror had made everybody mind the law, but now William Rufus let his cruel soldiers do just as they pleased, and spoil what they did not want.

William Rufus II

He is sometimes called the Red King, but more commonly William Rufus. Things went worse than ever with…

Stephen, who was a kind-hearted man himself, tried to stop these cruelties; but then the barons turned round on him, told him he was not their proper king, and invited Maude to come and be crowned in his stead.

Stephen

Stephen, who was a kind-hearted man himself, tried to stop these cruelties; but then the barons turned…

The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas A. Becket, did not think it was right to consent to a law that said if a priest or monk was thought to have committed any crime, he should be tried by a king's judge, instead of the bishop, and though he and the king had once been great friends, King Henry II was so angry with him that he was forced to leave England, and take shelter with the King of France.

Thomas A-Becket

The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas A. Becket, did not think it was right to consent to a law that…

During one of King Richard the Lion-Heart's crusades the city of Acre was taken over and a prince, Leopold, Duke of Austria, set up his banner on the walls. Richard did not think it ought to be there: he pulled it up and threw it down into the ditch, asking the duke how he durst take the honors of a king.

Richard Removing the Archduke's Banner

During one of King Richard the Lion-Heart's crusades the city of Acre was taken over and a prince, Leopold,…

As a kind of joke, John, King Henry's youngest son, had been called Lackland, because he had nothing when his brothers each had some great dukedom. The name suited him only too well before the end of his life. The English made him king at once. Richard had never had any children, but his brother Geoffery, who was older than John had left a son named Arthur, who was about twelve years old, and who rightly the Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou. King Philip, who was always glad to vex whoever was king of England, took Arthur under his protection, and promised to get Normandy out of John's hands. However, John had a meeting with him and persuaded him to desert Arthur, and marry his son Louis to John's own niece, Blanche, who had a chance of being queen of part of Spain. Still Arthur lived at the French King's court, and when he was sixteen years old, Philip helped him to raise an army and go to try his fortune against his uncle. He laid siege to Mirabeau, a town where his grandmother, Queen Eleanor, was living. John, who was then in Normandy, hurried to her rescue, beat Arthur's army, made him prisoner and carried him off, first to Romen, and then to the strong castle of Falaise. Nobody quite knows what was done to him there. The governor, Hubert de Burgh, once found him fighting hard, though with no weapon but a stool, to defend himself from some ruffians who had been sent to put out his eyes. Hubert saved him from these men, but shortly after this good man was sent elsewhere by the king, and John came himself to Falaise. Arthur was never seen alive again, and it is believed that John took him out in a boat in the river at night, stabbed him with his own hand, and threw his body in the river.

Murder of Prince Arthur

As a kind of joke, John, King Henry's youngest son, had been called Lackland, because he had nothing…

Marchantia polymorpha. Stoma in surface view

Bryophyta

Marchantia polymorpha. Stoma in surface view

All this time John Lacklands cruelty and savageness were making the whole kingdom miserable; and at last the great barons bear it no longer. They met together and agreed that they would make John swear to govern by the good old English laws that had prevailed before the Normans came. The difficulty was to be sure of what these laws were, for most of the copies of them had been lost. However, Archbishop Langton and some of the wisest of the barons put together a set of laws-some copied, some recollected, some old, some new-but all such as to give the barons some control of the king, and hinder him from getting savage soldiers together to frighten people into doing whatever he chose to make them. These laws they called Magna Charta, or the great charter; and they all came in armor, and took John by surprise at Windsor. He came to meet them in a meadow named Runnymede, on the bank of the Thames, and there they force him to sign the charter, for which all Englishmen are grateful to them.

John's Anger after Signing Magna Charta

All this time John Lacklands cruelty and savageness were making the whole kingdom miserable; and at…

King Henry was a builder of beautiful churches. Westminster Abbey, as it is now, was one. And he was charitable to the poor that, when he had his children weighed, he gave their weight in gold and silver in alms. But he gave to everyone who asked, and so always wanted money; and sometimes his men could get nothing for the king and queen to eat, but by going and taking sheep and poultry from the poor farmers around; so that things were nearly as bad as under William Rufus-because the king was so foolishly good-natured. The Pope was always sending for money, too; and the king tried to raise it in ways that, according to Magna Carta, he had sworn not to do. His foreign friends told him that if he minded Magna Carta he would be a poor creature-not like a king who might do all he pleased; and whenever he listened to them he broke the laws of Magna Carta. Then, when his barons complained and frightened him, he swore again to keep them; so that nobody could trust him, and his weakness was almost as bad for the kingdom as John's wickedness. When they could bear it no longer, the barons all met him at the council, which was called the Parliament, from a French word meaning talk. This time they came in armor, binging all their fighting men, and declared that he had broken his word so often that they should appoint some of their own number to watch him, and hinder his doing anything against the laws he had sworn to observe, or from getting money from the people without their consent.

King Henry and His Barons

King Henry was a builder of beautiful churches. Westminster Abbey, as it is now, was one. And he was…

King Edward II was sent to prison for neglecting his Queen and fooling around with other men.

Edward II. And His Jailers

King Edward II was sent to prison for neglecting his Queen and fooling around with other men.

Wat Tyler, while talking to the King, grew violent, forgot to whom he was speaking, and laid his hand on the king's bridle, as if to threaten or take him prisoner. Upon this, the Lord Mayor, with his mace-dealt the man such a blow that he fell from his horse, and an attendant thrust him through with a sword.

Death of Wat Tyler

Wat Tyler, while talking to the King, grew violent, forgot to whom he was speaking, and laid his hand…

Known greatly as the king of hearts, or the man of ruthless wonder, Henry was born in Pembroke Castle, Wales, in 1457, Henry VII was the only son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort.

Henry VII

Known greatly as the king of hearts, or the man of ruthless wonder, Henry was born in Pembroke Castle,…

The place where King Henry VII was laid to rest.

Chapel and Throne of Henry VII

The place where King Henry VII was laid to rest.

Henry VIII and all of his men coming into the city

Henry VIII

Henry VIII and all of his men coming into the city

When Henry VIII became king in 1509, Wolsey's affairs prospered. He became Canon of Windsor, Berkshire in 1511, the same year in which he became a member of the Privy Council. His political star was in the ascendant, and he soon became the controlling figure in all matters of state. 1514, he was made Bishop of Lincoln, and then Archbishop of York.

Cardinal Wolsey Served by Noblemen

When Henry VIII became king in 1509, Wolsey's affairs prospered. He became Canon of Windsor, Berkshire…

Monsters supposed to live in the ocean as drawn on old maps

Monsters

Monsters supposed to live in the ocean as drawn on old maps

Henry VIII was married six times during his life. First, to Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymor, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr.

Henry the VIII and His Wives

Henry VIII was married six times during his life. First, to Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymor,…

Edward VI became King of England and Ireland on January 28, 1547, at just nine years of age. Edward, the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first ruler who was Protestant at the time of his ascension to the throne. Edward's entire rule was mediated through a council of regency as he never reached majority. The council was first led by his uncle, Edward Seymour, and then by John Dudley.

Edward VI. Writing His Journal

Edward VI became King of England and Ireland on January 28, 1547, at just nine years of age. Edward,…

A view of Mount Vernon in George Washington's time.

Mount Vernon

A view of Mount Vernon in George Washington's time.