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"Diagram of the left half of a vertical median section of the brain. H, H, convoluted inner surface of left cerebral hemisphere; Cc, corpus callosum; Th, optic thalamus; c.q., corpora quadrigemina; Cb, cerebellum; Sp.c, spinal cord; Mo, medulla oblongata; P, pons Varolii; oc, oculo-motor nerve; pt, pituitary body; op, optic nerve; Ro, fissure of Rolando; Po, parieto-occipital fissure; Fr, frontal lobe; Pa, parietal lobe; O, occipital lobe." —Martin, 1917

Brain

"Diagram of the left half of a vertical median section of the brain. H, H, convoluted inner surface…

"Dissected fish. a, air bladder; b, urinary bladder; b, urinary bladder; br, brain; c, spinal cord; d and da, dorsal fins; dv, anal fin; e, body of the vertebra; g, gills receiving the blood from the ventral aorta leading out of the heart h; i, intestine; k, kidney; l, liver; m, spines of the vertebra; n, auricle of the heart; ov, ovary; ovd, oviduct; st, stomach; sp, spleen; u, ureter." —Davison, 1906

Dissected Fish

"Dissected fish. a, air bladder; b, urinary bladder; b, urinary bladder; br, brain; c, spinal cord;…

"Frog with the left side cut away and some of the organs pulled downward. a, aorta leading from the ventricle; b, bladder; c, spinal cord surrounded by the vertebral column of bone; d, small intestine; e, opening of the lungs into the pharynx; h, ventricle of the heart; k, kidney; l, lung; liv, liver; n, brain; ov, ovary; ovd, oviduct; p, pancreas; r, rectum; sp, spleen; st, stomach; t, tongue; si, small intestine; u, left auricle; ur, ureter; v, vena cava; vc, body of vertebra." —Davison, 1906

Dissected Frog

"Frog with the left side cut away and some of the organs pulled downward. a, aorta leading from the…

The last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum seen from the ventral side.

Lumbar and Sacrum of Spine

The last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum seen from the ventral side.

"The spinal cord and medulla oblongata. A, from the ventral, and B, from the dorsal aspect; C to H, cross-sections at different levels." —Martin, 1917

Medulla Oblongata

"The spinal cord and medulla oblongata. A, from the ventral, and B, from the dorsal aspect; C to H,…

"The spinal cord and nerve-roots. A, a small portion of the cord seen from the ventral side; B, the same seen laterally; C, a cross-section of the cord; D, the two roots of a spinal nerve; 1, ventral fissure; 2, dorsal fissure; 3, surface groove along the line of attachment of the ventral nerve-roots; 4, line of origin of the dorsal roots; 5, ventral root filaments of spinal nerve; 6, dorsal root filaments; 6', ganglion of the dorsal root; 7, 7', the first two divisions of the nerve-trunk after its formation by the union of the two roots. The grooves are much exaggerated." —Martin, 1917

Nerve Roots

"The spinal cord and nerve-roots. A, a small portion of the cord seen from the ventral side; B, the…

"The spinal column consists of abdominal and caudal vertebre, the coalescence of the parapophyses into a complete hemal ring and the suspension of the anal fin generally forming a sufficiently well-marked boundary between the abdominal and caudal regions." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Perch Skeleton

"The spinal column consists of abdominal and caudal vertebre, the coalescence of the parapophyses into…

Ribs and corresponding vertebral bodies in their ligaments, viewed from the right.

Ribs and Corresponding Vertebral Bodies

Ribs and corresponding vertebral bodies in their ligaments, viewed from the right.

"Lateral view of caudal vertebra of Basking Shark (Selache mazima). a, centrum; b, neurapophysis; c, intercrural cartilage; d, hemapophysis; e, spinal canal; f, intervertebal cavity; g, central canal for persistent portion of notochord; h, hemal canals for blood-vessels." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Shark Vertebra

"Lateral view of caudal vertebra of Basking Shark (Selache mazima). a, centrum; b, neurapophysis; c,…

"Longitudinal section of caudal vertebra of Basking Shark (Selache mazima). a, centrum; b, neurapophysis; c, intercrural cartilage; d, hemapophysis; e, spinal canal; f, intervertebal cavity; g, central canal for persistent portion of notochord; h, hemal canals for blood-vessels." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Shark Vertebra

"Longitudinal section of caudal vertebra of Basking Shark (Selache mazima). a, centrum; b, neurapophysis;…

"Transverse section of caudal vertebra of Basking Shark (Selache mazima). a, centrum; b, neurapophysis; c, intercrural cartilage; d, hemapophysis; e, spinal canal; f, intervertebal cavity; g, central canal for persistent portion of notochord; h, hemal canals for blood-vessels." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Shark Vertebra

"Transverse section of caudal vertebra of Basking Shark (Selache mazima). a, centrum; b, neurapophysis;…

Scheme of the origin, connection, and distribution of the spinal accessory nerve. Labels: Sp.Acc, spinal accessory nerve; C.1-4, first four cervical nerves (dorsal roots); Va, pneumogastric nerve; R, ganglion of the root; t, ganglion of the trunk; G.Ph, glossopharyngeal nerve; S.M, nerves to sternocleidomastoid; Tr, nerves to trapezius; F.M, foramen magnum; J.F, jugular foramen.

Spinal Accessory Nerve

Scheme of the origin, connection, and distribution of the spinal accessory nerve. Labels: Sp.Acc, spinal…

The spinal column. 1, 2, and 3: Vertebrae. 4 and 5: The sacrum and cocyx bones of the pelvis. 6: Processes.

Spinal Column

The spinal column. 1, 2, and 3: Vertebrae. 4 and 5: The sacrum and cocyx bones of the pelvis. 6: Processes.

Side view of a human spinal column.

Spinal column

Side view of a human spinal column.

Side view of the spinal column, with the vertebrae numbered: C1-7, cervical vertebrae; D1-12, dorsal vertebrae; L1-4, lumbar vertebrae; S1, sacrum; Co1-4, coccyx.

Spinal Column

Side view of the spinal column, with the vertebrae numbered: C1-7, cervical vertebrae; D1-12, dorsal…

View of the entire spinal column. The bodies of the vertebrae are in the front with the spinous processes on the other side. Between the row of the bodies of the vertebrae and the row of spinous processes you can see the canal in which lies the spinal marrow.

The Spinal Column

View of the entire spinal column. The bodies of the vertebrae are in the front with the spinous processes…

"Diagram of a slice across the spinal cord, showing the roots of a spinal nerve to the arm on the left. The arrows show which way the messages travel. The little circles are the cut ends of fibers extending up and down the cord. Only a few of the thousands of fibers really present are here shown." —Davison, 1910

Section of Spinal Cord

"Diagram of a slice across the spinal cord, showing the roots of a spinal nerve to the arm on the left.…

"Diagrammatic section of spinal cord in cervical region."—Finley, 1917

Section of a Spinal Cord

"Diagrammatic section of spinal cord in cervical region."—Finley, 1917

A lateral view of the spine divided into its cervical, dorsal, and lumbar portions.

Spinal Divisions

A lateral view of the spine divided into its cervical, dorsal, and lumbar portions.

Diagram on frozen section, showing relations of bodies and spines of vertebrae to levels at which spinal nerves escape from vertebral canal.

Spine

Diagram on frozen section, showing relations of bodies and spines of vertebrae to levels at which spinal…

Sternum and ribs with ligaments, from in front. In the right half of the figure the most anterior layer has been removed and the joint cavities have been opened; the parts are separated somewhat from one another on the left side.

Sternum and Ribs

Sternum and ribs with ligaments, from in front. In the right half of the figure the most anterior layer…

Vertebral column with ligaments, from in front.

Vertebral Column with Ligaments

Vertebral column with ligaments, from in front.

The spinal column, right lateral view and dorsal view.

Lateral and Dorsal View of the Vertebral Column

The spinal column, right lateral view and dorsal view.