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A machine or apparatus employed to reduce temperature by chemical or mechanical means.

Domestic Refrigerator

A machine or apparatus employed to reduce temperature by chemical or mechanical means.

"Showing the Effect of Variations in Temperature on Bacteria Growth. a, a single bacterium; b, its progeny in twenty-four hours at fifty degrees; c, its progeny in twenty-four hours at seventy degrees." — Blaisedell, 1904

Bacteria Growth

"Showing the Effect of Variations in Temperature on Bacteria Growth. a, a single bacterium; b, its progeny…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere. These crystals arise from the congelation of the minute vesicles which constitute the clouds, when the temperature of the latter is below zero. They are more regular when formed in a calm atmosphere. Their form may be investigated by collecting them on a black surface, and viewing them through a strong lens. The regularity, and at the same time variety, of their forms, are truly beautiful."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Snow Crystals

"Snow is water solidified in stellate crystals, variously modified, and floating in the atmosphere.…

An instrument for measuring temperature, founded on the principal that changes of temperature in bodies are accompanied by proportional changes in their volume of dimensions.

Thermometer

An instrument for measuring temperature, founded on the principal that changes of temperature in bodies…

This illustration shows a chemistry experiment where metal is heated to an extreme temperature.

Heated Metal

This illustration shows a chemistry experiment where metal is heated to an extreme temperature.

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is composed of crystals, usually in the form of six-pointed stars.

Snowflakes

A frozen moisture which falls from the atmosphere when the temperature is 32 degrees or lower. It is…

"The barometer is simply a pressure gauge that registers the pressure of the air. In this case the cup and tube at the bottom are protected by a brass or iron casing. At the top of the tube is a graduated scale. Attached to the casing is an accurate thermometer for determining the temperature of the outside air at the time the barometric observation is taken." — Hallock, 1905

Barometer

"The barometer is simply a pressure gauge that registers the pressure of the air. In this case the cup…

"The baths of Titus, the name of each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small dome inscribed laconicum directly over the furnace, and having the clypeus over it, will be observed in the corner of the chamber named concamerata sudatio. The vessels for water are inscribed, according to their temperature, with the same names as some of the chambers, frigidarium, tepisdarium, and calidarium." — Encyclopedia Britanica, 1893

Roman Baths

"The baths of Titus, the name of each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small dome inscribed…

"A form of air-engine which was invented in 1816 by the Rev. R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying the earliest application of what is known as the "regenerative" principle, the principle namely that heat may be deposited by a substance at one stage of its action and taken up again at another stage but with little loss, and with a great resulting change in the substance's temperature at each of the two stages in the operation." —Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Stirling's Air Engine

"A form of air-engine which was invented in 1816 by the Rev. R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying…

"Leslie's hygrometer, which is an adaptation of his differential thermometer, is formed by uniting two tubes having a ball blown on the end of each, into which some colored sulphuric ether has been previously introduced. When both bulbs are at the same temperature, the fluid stands at the zero of the scale, but when one of them is covered with wetted paper the instrument shows the depression of temperature of the wetted bulb." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Leslies Hygrometer

"Leslie's hygrometer, which is an adaptation of his differential thermometer, is formed by uniting two…

"The expansion of solids by heat is clearly shown by the following experiment: m represents a ring of metal, through which, at the ordinary temperature, a small iron or copper ball, a, will pass freely, this ball being a little less than the diameter of the ring. If this ball be now heated by the flame of an alcohol lame, it will be come so far expanded by heat as no longer to pass through the ring." —Wells, 1857

Expansion of Solids

"The expansion of solids by heat is clearly shown by the following experiment: m represents a ring of…

"AB is a strong metal tube, closed at the lower end, and carrying at the upper a bent pipe for admitting the compressed gas and a stop-cock R pierced with holes in a T form. DE and FG are two graduated glass tubes communicating at their lower ends by a narrow passage in the metal block to which they are hermetically fixed. DE and AB Also communicate at the upper ends by a passage in a metal piece attached bermetically to them. By the stop-cock R', having radial holes at right angles to each other, DE can communicate either with AB or with the atmosphere at O; and by the stop-cock R'' it can communicate either with FG or with the open air. The three tubes are surrounded by a cylinder MM' containing water to keep the temperature constant. The tube AB is filled with the compressed gas whose pressure is to be ascertained. Mercury is poured into FG till it fills DE and runs out at O." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Regnaults Manometer

"AB is a strong metal tube, closed at the lower end, and carrying at the upper a bent pipe for admitting…

"Stevenson's louvre-boarded box for the thermometers, which is now very widely used for temperature observations. The box is made of wood, and louvred all round so as to protect the thermometers inside from radiation, and at the same time secure as free a circulation of air as is consistent with a satisfactory protection from radiation. The box is painted white, both inside and outside, and screwed to four stout wooden posts, also painted white, firmly fixed in the ground. The posts are of such a length that when the thermometers are hung in position the bulbs of the minimum thermometer and hygrometer are exactly at the same height of 4 feet above the ground, the maximum thermometer being hung immediately above the minimum thermometer." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Thermometer Box

"Stevenson's louvre-boarded box for the thermometers, which is now very widely used for temperature…

A storm composed of sand. It occurs when the air over the sand becomes hot, and rises. The differences in air pressure and temperature allow the cooler winds to rush in.

Dust Storm

A storm composed of sand. It occurs when the air over the sand becomes hot, and rises. The differences…

These zones, which are separated by the parallels of latitude, are generally termed the <em>astronomical</em> or <em>mathematical zones</em> to distinguish them from others called <em>physical zones</em>, which are bounded by the lines of mean annual temperature.

Mathematical Climate Zones

These zones, which are separated by the parallels of latitude, are generally termed the astronomical…

Winds are masses of air in motion. They resemble the currents in the ocean, and result from the same causes-differences of density caused by differences of temperature.

Origin of Winds

Winds are masses of air in motion. They resemble the currents in the ocean, and result from the same…

During the day the land near the coast becomes warmer than the sea. An ascending current, therefore, rises over the land, and a breeze, called the <em>sea breeze</em>, sets in from the sea, At night the land, from its more rapid cooling, soon becomes colder than the water; the ascending current then rises from the water, and a breeze, called <em>land breeze</em>, sets in from the land.

Land and Sea Breezes

During the day the land near the coast becomes warmer than the sea. An ascending current, therefore,…

During the prevalence of the simoom, particles of fine sand are carried into the atmosphere and obscure the light of the sun. Becoming intensely heated, these particles, by their radiation, increase the temperature of the air, which sometimes rises as high as 120 degrees or 130 degrees Fahr. When powerful winds prevail, dense clouds of sand are carried about in the atmosphere, producing the so-called sand storms. The sand-drifts which are thus formed constantly change their position.

Sand Storm in the Desert

During the prevalence of the simoom, particles of fine sand are carried into the atmosphere and obscure…

An aluminum set of disks that correctly finds the time needed to develop photos in solution

Watkins's Factorial Calculator

An aluminum set of disks that correctly finds the time needed to develop photos in solution

Shows the differences between the Centigrade and absolute (Kelvin) temperature scales at the boiling point of water, room temperature, freezing point of water, boiling point of hydrogen and absolute zero.

Temperature Scales

Shows the differences between the Centigrade and absolute (Kelvin) temperature scales at the boiling…

"...gas lighted above an iron gauze (a, Fig. 11) does not catch fire below the gauze because the heat of the flame is conducted away by the iron." -Brownlee 1907

Bunsen Burner

"...gas lighted above an iron gauze (a, Fig. 11) does not catch fire below the gauze because the heat…

"The electric furnace is a device by which a very high temperature is obtained by using a large arc between carbon terminals. The arc consists of carbon vapor, which conducts the current over the gap between the carbons and the resistance is so great that much heat is developed." -Brownlee 1907

Electric Furance

"The electric furnace is a device by which a very high temperature is obtained by using a large arc…

"Three temperature scales compared against one another." -Comstock 1850

Temperature Scale

"Three temperature scales compared against one another." -Comstock 1850

"Tenacity is that property of matter by virtue of which some bodies resist a force tending to pull their particles asunder Its measure is the ratio between the breaking weight and the area of the cross section of the body broken. It varies with different substances, with the form of the body, with the temperature, and with the duration of the pull." -Avery 1895

Testing for Tenacity

"Tenacity is that property of matter by virtue of which some bodies resist a force tending to pull their…

"Thermometers showing the corresponding points for water's freezing and boiling." -Avery 1895

Fahrenheit and Celcius scale Thermometers

"Thermometers showing the corresponding points for water's freezing and boiling." -Avery 1895

"For measuring the gas concentration, pressure and temperature, use may be made of an apparatus of the type shown [here]." &mdash;The Encyclopedia Britannica 1910

Apparatus for Measuring Gas Concentration Pressure and Temperature

"For measuring the gas concentration, pressure and temperature, use may be made of an apparatus of the…

"A bulb of liquid is placed in the base of the glass graduated tube. As temperature increases, the volume of the liquid increases and it expands up the tube where its level is read on the graduated scale." &mdash;Quackenbos 1859

Thermometer

"A bulb of liquid is placed in the base of the glass graduated tube. As temperature increases, the volume…

"Used to compare the temperature between two environments. As the temperature in one bulb increases, the liquid reading changes according to the air expanding within the bulb. If both bulbs are the same temperature, the scale measures zero." &mdash;Quackenbos 1859

Differential Thermometer

"Used to compare the temperature between two environments. As the temperature in one bulb increases,…

"As temperature elevates, the metal bar being tested expands accordingly and the dial measures the expansive power per degree of heat." &mdash;Quackenbos 1859

Pyrometer

"As temperature elevates, the metal bar being tested expands accordingly and the dial measures the expansive…

An illustration of thermometers in Fahrenheit and centigrade/Celsius with freezing and boiling labeled.

Fahrenheit and Centigrade Thermometers with Boiling and Freezing Labeled

An illustration of thermometers in Fahrenheit and centigrade/Celsius with freezing and boiling labeled.

Blank Celsius Lab Thermometer

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

Blank Celsius Lab Thermometer

0 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

0 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

-1 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

-1 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

-2 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

-2 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

-3 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

-3 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

-4 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

-4 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

-5 Degrees Celsius Centigrade

Celsius Centigrade Lab Thermometers

-5 Degrees Celsius Centigrade