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"Now it is the inclination of the Earth's axis, as above described, which causes the lengths of the days and nights to differ at the same place at different seasons of the year, for on reviewing the positions of the globe at A, it will be observed that the line formed by the enlightened and dark hemispheres, does not coincide with the line of the axis and the pole, but that the line formed by the darkness and the light, extends obliquely across the line of the Earth's axis, so that the north pole is in the light while the south is in the dark. In the position A, therefore, an observer at the north pole would see the sun constantly, while another at the south pole would not see it at all. Hence those living in the north temperate zone, at the season of the year when the earth is at A, or in the Summer, would have long days and short nights, in proportion as they approached the polar circle; while those who live in the south temperate zone, at the same time, and when it would be Winter there, would have long nights and short days in the same proportion." —Comstock, 1850

Earth Axis

"Now it is the inclination of the Earth's axis, as above described, which causes the lengths of the…

"Suppose the Earth to be in her Summer solstice, which takes place on the 21st of June. At this period she will be at a, having her north pole, n, so inclined towards the Sun, that the whole arctic circle will be illuminated, and consequently the Sun's rays will extend 23.25 degrees, the breadth of the polar circle, beyond the north pole." —Comstock, 1850

Seasons

"Suppose the Earth to be in her Summer solstice, which takes place on the 21st of June. At this period…

"Let this figure represent the Earth, N being the north pole, S the south pole, and E W the equator. The lines 10, 20, 30, and so on, are the parallels of latitude, and the lines N a S, N b S, etc., are meridian lines, or those of longitude." —Comstock, 1850

Longitude

"Let this figure represent the Earth, N being the north pole, S the south pole, and E W the equator.…

"This very extraordinary species from north-east Africa differs from all other rodents in the peculiar granulated plated which cover the temporal fossae, and from all the species of the section in the rudimentary condition of the clavicles as well as in the possession of an opposable hallux. The hair is very peculiar in structure, and forms a crest along the back and tail." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Lophiomys Imhausi

"This very extraordinary species from north-east Africa differs from all other rodents in the peculiar…

Breakwaters are structures on coasts as part of coastal defense or to protect an anchorage from the effects of weather and longshore drift.

Colombo North-West Breakwater

Breakwaters are structures on coasts as part of coastal defense or to protect an anchorage from the…

Breakwaters are structures on coasts as part of coastal defense or to protect an anchorage from the effects of weather and longshore drift.

Colombo North-West Breakwater

Breakwaters are structures on coasts as part of coastal defense or to protect an anchorage from the…

Raleigh's plan for colonization in Virginia in North America ended in failure at Roanoke Island, but paved the way for subsequent colonies.

Sir Walter Raleigh

Raleigh's plan for colonization in Virginia in North America ended in failure at Roanoke Island, but…

Edward I built many castles in North Wales to help subdue the Welsh Following his conquest of the principality in 1277 and the defeat of the Prince of Wales, Llywelyn ap Gruffydd.

Caernarvon Castle

Edward I built many castles in North Wales to help subdue the Welsh Following his conquest of the principality…

A North African, single humped, camel.

Dromedary

A North African, single humped, camel.

A North African antelope with large spiral horns, on the males. Usually brown and white.

Kudu

A North African antelope with large spiral horns, on the males. Usually brown and white.

Rootstock of Solomon's Seal, with the bottom of the stalk of the season, and the bud for the next year's growth.

Solomon's Seal

Rootstock of Solomon's Seal, with the bottom of the stalk of the season, and the bud for the next year's…

Trillium is a genus of about 40-50 species of perennial herbaceous flowering plants, native to temperate regions of North America and Asia.

Trillium

Trillium is a genus of about 40-50 species of perennial herbaceous flowering plants, native to temperate…

A North American poisonous herb. The plant itself usually has a blossom between two large green fleshy leaves. Parts of it are edible.

Mayapple

A North American poisonous herb. The plant itself usually has a blossom between two large green fleshy…

River with two boats on it. Scenery that of the north east.

Portait of a River

River with two boats on it. Scenery that of the north east.

The great low plain of North America lies between the Atlantic system on the east and the Pacific system of the west.

Plains

The great low plain of North America lies between the Atlantic system on the east and the Pacific system…

A North American plant that only blooms every 80-100 years.

Century Plant

A North American plant that only blooms every 80-100 years.

A North American plant that only blooms every 80-100 years.

Century Plant

A North American plant that only blooms every 80-100 years.

A rodent of North America that plays deadfor self defense.

Opossum

A rodent of North America that plays deadfor self defense.

A North American woodland creature notorious for it's curiosity and ringed eyes and tail.

Raccoon

A North American woodland creature notorious for it's curiosity and ringed eyes and tail.

Lake George, also known as <em>Queen of American Lakes</em>, is a long narrow lake at the southeast base of the Adirondack Mountains, northern New York. The lake extends about 32.2 miles on a north-south axis and varies from 1 to 3 miles in width.

View of Lake George, N.Y.

Lake George, also known as Queen of American Lakes, is a long narrow lake at the southeast…

When the glacier extends into the sea, the base is undermined by the warmer waters of the ocean, and great fragments are broken off by the waves, forming floating mountains of ice, called <em>icebergs</em>. Icebergs are particularly numerous in the North Atlantic, into which they descend from the extensive Arctic glacial region already described.

Icebergs

When the glacier extends into the sea, the base is undermined by the warmer waters of the ocean, and…

If a magnetized bar or needle be suspended at its centre of gravity so as to move freely in a horizontal plane, after a few oscillations it will come to rest, with one of it ends pointing nearly to the geographical north pole of the earth.

The Magnetic Needle

If a magnetized bar or needle be suspended at its centre of gravity so as to move freely in a horizontal…

Pines are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, they range from Arctic south to Nicaragua and Hispaniola, with the highest diversity in Mexico and California. In Eurasia, they range from Portugal and Scotland east to the Russian Far East, Japan, and the Philippines, and south to northernmost Africa, the Himalaya and Southeast Asia, with one species (Sumatran Pine) just crossing the Equator in Sumatra. Pines are also extensively planted in many parts of the Southern Hemisphere.

Pine Tree

Pines are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, they range from Arctic south…

A group of trees or shrubs native to North America and Europe.

Ar'butus

A group of trees or shrubs native to North America and Europe.

A native of America, is extensively cultivated from the southern part of Chili to high latitudes in North America. Its northern European limit is perhaps near the isotherm of 65 degrees Fahr.

Maize

A native of America, is extensively cultivated from the southern part of Chili to high latitudes in…

Thought to be native to Southern Asia. They are extensively cultivated throughout the tropical zones, both north and south of the equator. Since their fruit is very nutritious, and the yield of a given fruit are great, they form an exceedingly important staple of food.

Banana

Thought to be native to Southern Asia. They are extensively cultivated throughout the tropical zones,…

Tea consists of the dried leaves of a number of evergreen shrubs, natives of China or thereabouts. Tea is cultivated in China and India, as far north as latitude 45. It appears to thrive between 25 and 33 N. Latitude. It is extensively cultivated in Malacca, Java, and various portions of the English possessions in India. Tea was introduced into Europe by the Dutch in 1610.

Tea Plant

Tea consists of the dried leaves of a number of evergreen shrubs, natives of China or thereabouts. Tea…

This sculpture is a Bronze-relief by Ghiberti. It is of a man on his knees in the presence of Jesus. It can now be found on the North Door of the Bapistry in Florence, Italy.

Offering of the Wise Men

This sculpture is a Bronze-relief by Ghiberti. It is of a man on his knees in the presence of Jesus.…

Diagram of points on a compass.

Compass Points

Diagram of points on a compass.

Boreas was the Greek god of the cold north wind and the bringer of winter. His name meant "North Wind" or "Devouring One."

Boreas

Boreas was the Greek god of the cold north wind and the bringer of winter. His name meant "North Wind"…

(1810-1882) Scottish physician and essayist.

John Brown

(1810-1882) Scottish physician and essayist.

A coniferous tree native to the northern districts of the North Island of New Zealand and is the bigest but not tallest species of tree in the country, with trunk diameters that rival Sequoias.

Kauri Pine

A coniferous tree native to the northern districts of the North Island of New Zealand and is the bigest…

The ancient Egyptians regarded the scarab as a symbol of immortality. 1. Stone scarab with wings, 2. The sacred beetle (<em>Scarabaeus sacer</em>), 3. Scarab from the British Museum, 4. Scarab seal from the tomb of Maket, 5, 6. Scarabs from monuments.

Egyptian scarabs

The ancient Egyptians regarded the scarab as a symbol of immortality. 1. Stone scarab with wings, 2.…

A sceptre from the seal of Edward the Confessor.

Sceptre of Edward the Confessor

A sceptre from the seal of Edward the Confessor.

"The Schipperke is a small tailless dog, originally bred in Belgium and only later introduced to North America." —Finley, 1917

Schipperke

"The Schipperke is a small tailless dog, originally bred in Belgium and only later introduced to North…

"Right hand rule for polarity of a solenoid: If the solenoid be grasped in the right hand, so that the fingers point in the direction in which the current is flowing in the wires, the thumb extended will point in the direction of the north pole [of the solenoid]." Hawkins, 1917

Right Hand Rule, Solenoid

"Right hand rule for polarity of a solenoid: If the solenoid be grasped in the right hand, so that the…

Figure showing magnetic lines of force from a magnet, as well as both north and south poles.

Magnetic Field

Figure showing magnetic lines of force from a magnet, as well as both north and south poles.

"If a magnet is cut or broken into two or more pieces, each piece becomes a separate magnet, with north and south poles in the same relative positions as in the original magnet...But if the pieces be pressed closely together, their poles dissapear leaving only the two original poles." -Atkinson 1903

Effect of Breaking a Magnet

"If a magnet is cut or broken into two or more pieces, each piece becomes a separate magnet, with north…

"A coil of wire through which an elecric current is flowing shows magnetic properties similar to those of an electromagnet, b much weaker than those of a similar coil having a soft iron core. Such a coil, if suspended...will assume a north and south position..." -Atkinson 1903

Solenoid

"A coil of wire through which an elecric current is flowing shows magnetic properties similar to those…

"Suppose a b c to represent a portion of the earth's surface a being towards the north pole, c towards the south pole...The currents of air are supposed to pass in the direction of the arrows. the wind, therefore, for a to b would blow on the surface of the earth, from north to south, while from e to a, the upper current would pass from south to north, untl it came to a, when it would change is direction towards the south." -Comstock 1850

Opposite Currents of Air

"Suppose a b c to represent a portion of the earth's surface a being towards the north pole, c towards…

"The instant this is done and the galvanic circle completed, the needle will deviate from its north and south position, turning towards the east or west, according to the direction in which the galvanic circle flows." -Comstock 1850

Uniting Wire above the Needle

"The instant this is done and the galvanic circle completed, the needle will deviate from its north…

"Thus, if we suppose the conducting wire be placed in a vertical situation, as shown, and p, n, the current of positive electricity to be descending through it, from p to n, and if throught the point c in the wire in the plane NN be taken, perpendicular to p, n, that is in the present case a horiczontal plane, then if any number of circles be described in that plane, having c for thier common centre, the action of the current on the wire on upon the north pole of the magnet, will be to move it in a direction corresponding to the motion of the hands of a watch, having the dial towards the positive pole of the battery." -Comstock 1850

Circular Motion of the [Electric] Fluid

"Thus, if we suppose the conducting wire be placed in a vertical situation, as shown, and p, n, the…

"The magnetic poles of the earth do notc oincide with its geographical poles and, condequently, in some places, the magnetic needle does not point ot the geographical north. The angle that the axis of a compass-bneedle makes with the geographical meridian at any place is called the declination or variation of the needle at that place...Lines drawn through places on the earth where the declination is the sam are called isogonic lines, as shown." -Avery 1895

Isogonic Lines of Earth

"The magnetic poles of the earth do notc oincide with its geographical poles and, condequently, in some…

"We have an example of resultant motion in a boat which a person attempts to row north across a river, while the tide carries it to the east. Each force produces the same effect as if acted alone; and the boatman, when he has crossed the river, will find himself neither due north nor due east of the point from which he started, but northeast of it." &mdash;Quackenbos 1859

Resultant Motion with Boat

"We have an example of resultant motion in a boat which a person attempts to row north across a river,…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed (with the points of the teeth so incurved as to appear blunt), and often finely "crinkled." Outline - usually long oval or long egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed. Leaf/Stem - usually with two to five tooth-like glands near the base of the leaf. Leaf - two to five inches long; thickish; polished, and of a deep shining green above; beneath, lighter and smooth, with the middle rib sometimes downy toward the base. In the autumn the leaves turn to orange and later to pale yellow. Bark - of old trunks, blackish and rough; of young trunks and on the larger branches, reddish or purplish brown; marked with scattered lines; on young shoots, at first green or olive brown, gradually becoming darker, and sprinkled (sic) with small orange dots. Flowers - white, with short stems, closely set in a long, cylinder-shaped cluster. May, June. Fruit - about one and a quarter inches in diameter; with short stems (one and a quarter to one and a third inches ) hanging in long, close clusters from the ends of the twigs. It is nearly black when ripe, and of a pleasant flavor though somewhat bitter; it is eagerly eaten by birds. August. Found - very widely distributed north, south, and west. It reaches its finest growth on the western slopes of the Alleghany Mountains. General Information - A tree fifty to eighty feet high. The wood is light and hard, of a brown or reddish tinge, becoming darker with exposure, and of very great value in cabinet work and interior finish. It is now becoming scarce, so that stained birch is often used as a substitute. The bitter aromatic bark is used as a valuable tonic; "cherry brandy" is made from the fruit.

Genus Prunus L. (Cherry, Plum)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed (with the points of the teeth so incurved as to appear blunt),…

Leaves - simple; alternate (and in alternate bunches); edge unevenly sharp-toothed (with five to nine deep cuts almost forming small lobes). Outline - rounded egg-shape Apex - pointed Base - usually slightly pointed, but often blunt or slightly heart-shape. Leaf/Stem - slender and often with small wart-like glands. Leaf - usually one and a half to two and a half inches long, but of variable size on the same tree; thin; smooth; shining. Branchlets - greenish, or whitish and shining, as though washed with silver. Thorns - one to two inches long, stout, often whitish, usually slightly curved. Flowers - about two thirds of an inch across; white (often with a rosy tinge); twelve or so in a bunch; with a strong and rather disagreeable odor. May. Fruit - nearly one half inch in diameter; rounded or egg-shape; bright red; with thin pulp and one to five stones; somewhat edible. September Found - through the Atlantic forests southward to Northern Florida and Eastern Texas. General Information - A low tree (or often a bush), ten to twenty feet high, with crooked, spreading branches; very common at the North; rare in the South. From a Greek word meaning strength.

Genus Crataegus, L. (Thorn)

Leaves - simple; alternate (and in alternate bunches); edge unevenly sharp-toothed (with five to nine…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and finely toothed. Outline - long oval, long egg-shape, or reverse egg-shape. Apex - sometimes bristle-pointed. Base - slightly heart-shaped or rounded. Leaf - usually two to three inches long, somewhat downy when young, afterward very smooth above and below. Bark - of branches and twigs usually purplish-brown and very smooth. Flowers - large, white, in long and loose clusters at the ends of the branchlets; appearing before the leaves. April, May. Fruit - berry-like, round, purplish, sweet, and edible. June. Found - in woods and along streams; common at the North; rare in the South. General Information - A small tree, ten to thirty feet high, or in some of its numerous forms reduced to a low shrub; noticeable and showy in early spring because of its flowers. The variety A. C. oblongifolia, T. and G., differs somewhat from the above in the dimensions of the flowers and flower clusters, etc. The name "shad-bush" is given because the trees blossom about the time that the shad "run".

Genus Amelanchier, Medik (June-berry)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and finely toothed. Outline - long oval, long egg-shape,…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and often doubly toothed. Outline - oval or egg-shaped, or inversely egg-shaped; always one-sided. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded, or slightly heart-shaped, rarely pointed. Leaf/Stem - about one quarter inch long. Buds - smooth. Leaf - usually two to five inches long, and one and a half to two and a half wide; somewhat downy when young, afterward roughish below; above, either rough in one direction, or (especially if taken from the ends of the long branches) smooth and shining. Ribs - prominent and straight. Bark - of the branches not marked with "corky ridges"; branchlets, smooth. Seeds - flat egg-shaped or oval, winged and fringed all around. Last of May. Found - northward to Southern Newfoundland; southward to Florida; westward to the Black Hills of Dakota. Toward the western and southwestern limits it is found only in the river-bottom lands. General Information - One of the very noblest of American trees, eighty feet or more in height, and of strong and graceful proportions. The trunk divides at a slight angle into two or three arching limbs, and these again into many smaller curving and drooping branches. The trunk and the larger branches are often heavily fringed with short and leafy boughs. The tree is widely cultivated. Streets planted with it become columned and arched like the aisles of a Gothic cathedral. The wood is hard, and very tough from the interlacing of its fibers. It is used in making saddle-trees and for wheel-hubs, and is now largely exported to England to be used in boat- and ship-building. One day I found four men in a stone quarry, working with iron bars and rollers over a heavy flat slab. They were moving the stone slowly up a narrow plant into their cart. "John, " I said, "I would not think that board could hold a stone of such weight two minutes. Is it hickory?" "No sir, " said John, " that's an elm plank; it can't break." It did not break. It was one of the woods which the Deacon used in building his famous "one-hoss shay": So the deacon inquired of the village folk Where he could find the strongest oak, That count n't be split nor bent nor broke, - That was for spokes and floor and sills; He sent for lancewood to make the thills; The cross-bars were ash, from the straightest trees; The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese, But lasts like iron for thing like these; The hubs of logs from the Settler's Ellum; - Last of its timber, - they could n't sell 'em, Never an axe had seen their chips, And the wedges flew from between their lips, Their blunt ends frizzled like celery-tips;" --Oliver Wendell Holmes

Genus Ulmus, L. (Elm)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and often doubly toothed. Outline - oval or egg-shaped, or…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and slightly irregularly and unequally toothed. Outline - long oval or long egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - slightly heart-shaped. Leaf/Stem - about one fourth inch long, and often rough. Leaf - usually three to four inches long, and about half as wide, but with many smaller leaves of varying size on the same branch; smoothish above, paler and somewhat downy below. Ribs - The straight ribs and their angles hairy. Bark - of trunk, brownish or dark gray, and remarkable for being finely furrowed up and down, with the ridges broken into three - to four-inch lengths. These divisions are narrower than on any other rough-barked tree, and they become narrower and finer as the tree grows older. The new shoots are reddish green and dotted with brown; the younger branches purplish-brown and dotted with white or gray. When the branch is two to three inches thick, its bark becomes grayish and begins to crack. Fruit - in long oval, drooping clusters, resembling those of the hop-vine, with long, unlobed scales that lap each other like shingles. August, September. Found - oftenest on dry hill-sides. Common North, South, and West, especially in Southern Arkansas. General Information - A tree twenty to thirty feet high, with white, very strong, and compact wood. It would be very valuable, if it were more abundant and of larger growth.

Genus ostrya, Scop. (Hop-Hornbeam)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and slightly irregularly and unequally toothed. Outline…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and quite irregularly and unevenly toothed. Outline - long egg-shape, or reverse long egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded or slightly heart-shaped. Leaf/Stem - about one half inch long, slender and smooth, or slightly hairy. Leaf - usually three to four inches long, and about half as wide, but with many smaller leaves of varying size on the same branch; nearly smooth, slightly hairy on the straight and distinct ribs and in their angles. Bark - of trunk, a deep bluish-gray or slate; smooth, but often marked up and down with irregular ridges, which run from each side of the lower branches. The new shoots are somewhat hairy, and brownish or purple; the older branchlets, an ashy-gray color, with a pearly luster. Fruit - in loose drooping cluster, with leaf-like scales that are strongly three-lobed and placed in pairs base to base. October. Found - along streams and in swamps. Quite common North, South, and West; northward often only as a low shrub. General Information - A small tree or shrub, usually ten to twenty feet high, but in the southern Alleghany Mountains sometimes reaching a height of fifty feet. Its wood is white and very compact and strong.

Genus Carpinus, L. (Hornbeam)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and quite irregularly and unevenly toothed. Outline -…

Leaves - Simple; alternate; edge very finely and sharply toothed. Outline - long egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed. Leaf/Stem - about one fourth to one half inch long. Leaf/Buds - yellowish and smooth. Leaf - about three to five or six inches long, one inch or more wide; dark above, smooth and shining above and below. Middle ribs usually whitish, and distinct above. Found - from New England southward to Chester County, Pennsylvania, west and north. Rather common, usually on wet grounds. General Information - A small tree (or often a shrub) twelve to twenty-five feet high. Salix from two Celtic words meaning "near" and "water."

Genus Salix, L. (Willow)

Leaves - Simple; alternate; edge very finely and sharply toothed. Outline - long egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with rounded hollows between. Outline - rounded. Apex - short, sharp-pointed. Base - slightly heart-shaped. Leaf/Stem - slender and very much flattened sidewise. Leaf - two to two and a half inches wide, and usually about one half inch shorter than wide; dark green; smooth on both sides when mature, with a slight down on the edge. Ribs distinct above and below and whitish. Bark - of trunk, greenish-white and smooth, often with blotches of very dark brown, especially under the ends of the branches. The bark is exceedingly bitter. Found - from Northern Kentucky and the mountains of Pennsylvania northward to Hudson Bay and Newfoundland, northwest to the Arctic Ocean, and along the Rocky Mountain slopes. It is the most widely distributed of North American Trees. General Information - A tree twenty to fifty feet high, with white, soft wood that is largely used in place of rags in making coarse paper. The tremulousness of its foliage, which the slightest breeze stirs, is due to the thinness of the sidewise-flattened leaf-stems. Tradition accounts differently for the motion of the leaves. It says that the wood of the aspen tree was taken for the Saviour's cross, and that, ever since, the tree has shivered. Another tradition claims that, when Christ went by on his way to Calvary, all the trees sympathized and mourned, excepting the aspen; but when he died, there fell upon the aspen a sudden horror of remorse, and such a fearful trembling as has never passed away. In describing the occupations of the fifty maidens in the hall of the "gorgeous palace" of King Alcinous, Homer says: "...some wove the web, Or twirled the spindle, sitting, with a quick, Light motion like the aspen's glancing leaves."

Genus Populus, L. (Aspen, Poplar)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with rounded hollows between. Outline - rounded. Apex…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge large-toothed, with the hollows rounded. Outline - wide egg-shape. Apex - sharp-pointed. Base - squared, or slightly rounded. Leaf/Stem - long and slender, and flattened sidewise. Leaf - three to five inches long, smooth on both sides when mature; white, and covered thickly with silky wool when young. Ribs, whitish and distinct above. Bark - of the trunk, smooth, and of a soft, light greenish-gray; when old, becoming somewhat cracked. On the young branches the bark is dark. Found - in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, through the Northern States, along the Alleghany Mountains to North Carolina, and west to Wisconsin and Iowa. Rare at the South. common at the North. General Information - A tree forth to eight feet high, with open, crooked branches. Large quantities of the soft, white wood are ground into pulp for making paper. "In both this and the P. tremuloides, Michx., the leaves of young sprouts are often differently shaped and toothed, and much enlarged." -- (Porter.) Poplar wood, like other soft woods, is not usually esteemed for durability' but an old couplet, said to have been found inscribed on a poplar plank, teaches differently: "Though 'heart of Oak' be e'er so stout, Keep me dry, and I'll see him out."

Genus Populus, L. (Aspen, Poplar)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge large-toothed, with the hollows rounded. Outline - wide egg-shape.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (lobes entire). Outline - rounded. Apex - cut almost squarely across, with a shallow hollow, giving a square look to the upper half of the leaf. Base - usually heart-shape. Leaf - three to five inches long and wide; very smooth; with four to six lobes (two lobes at the summit; at the sides two, or two large and two small). Bark - of trunk, dark ash-color and slightly rough. Flowers - four to six inches across, greenish-yellow, marked within with orange, somewhat tulip-like, fragrant solitary. May, June. Found - from Southwestern Vermont to Michigan, southward and westward. Its finest growth is in the valley of the lower Wabash River and along the western slopes of the Alleghany Mountains. General Information - Among the largest and most valuable of the North American Trees. It is usually seventy to one hundred feet high, often much higher, with a straight, clear trunk, that divides rather abruptly at the summit into coarse and straggling branches. The wood is light and soft, straight grained, and easily worked, with the heart wood light yellow or brown, and the thin sap wood nearly white. It is very widely and variously used - for construction, for interior finish, for shingles, in boat-building, for the panels of carriages, especially in the making of wooden pumps and wooden ware of different kings. I asked a carpenter: "Hope, is n't it the tulip wood (which you call poplar*) that the carriage-makers use for their panels?" "Yes, and the reason is, because it shapes so easily. If you take a panel and wet one side, and hold the other side to a hot stove-pipe, the piece will just hub the pipe. It's the best wood there is for panelling." "Of all the trees of North America with deciduous leaves, the tulip tree, next to the buttonwood, attains the amplest dimensions, while the perfect straightness and uniform diameter of its trunk for upwards of forty feet, the more regular disposition of its branches, and the greater richness of its foliage, give it a decided superiority over the buttonwood and entitle it to be considered as one of the most magnificent vegetables of the temperate zone." - Michaux. *The name should be dropped. The tree is not a poplar. The tulip tree was very highly esteemed by the ancients; so much so that in some of their festivals they are said to have honored it by pouring over its roots libations of wine.

Genus Liriodendron, L. (Tulip Tree)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (lobes entire). Outline - rounded. Apex - cut almost squarely…

Leaves - simple; alternate; lobed (the edge of the lobes entire, or of the larger ones sometimes wavy). Outline - reverse egg-shape. Apex - of the lobes, rounded. Base - wedge-shape. Leaf - six to fifteen inches long (the longest of the oak-leaves); smooth above, downy beneath; the lobes usually long and rather irregular, the middle ones longest and often extending nearly to the middle rib. Bark - of the young branches always marked with corky wings or ridges. Acorns - large, with short stems. Cup - two thirds to two inches across, roughly covered with pointed scales, and heavily fringed around the nut. Nut - very large (one to one and a half inches long); broad egg-shape; one half to two thirds or often wholly enclosed by the cup. Found - along the coast of Maine southward as far as the Penobscot, in Western New England, in Western New York, in Pennsylvania, and thence westward to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains of Montana, and from Central Nebraska and Kansas southwest to the Indian Territory and Texas. It is found farther west and northwest than any other oak of the Atlantic forests. In the prairie region it forms a principal growth of the "Oak Openings." General Information - One of the most valuable and widely distributed oaks in North America, growing sixty to eighty feet in height, or more, with hard, tough wood resembling that of the White Oak. "The most interesting thing about this tree, perhaps is its power, quite unknown in the other White Oaks, of adapting itself to very different climatic conditions, which enables it to live in the humid climate of Maine and Vermont, to flourish in the somewhat drier climate of the Mississippi Valley, and to exist (still farther west) in the driest and most exposed region in habited by any of the Eastern America Oaks." - Sargent. Q. m. olivaformis is a variety found only in a few districts (near Albany and in Pennsylvania), having narrower and rather more deeply lobed leaves. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; lobed (the edge of the lobes entire, or of the larger ones sometimes wavy).…

Leaves simple; alternate; edge lobed (edges of the lobes mostly entire, but slightly toothed toward the ends). Outline - about oval. Base - short wedge-shape, or rounded. Ends of the lobes and of their one to three slight teeth, pointed and bristle-tipped. Leaf - six to nine inches long, three to five inches wide; both surfaces smooth. Lobes, nine to thirteen, usually very tapering from the base, with the hollows between them rounded and narrow and extending about half way to the middle rib. Bark - of trunk, dark, greenish-gray, and continuing smooth longer than on any other oak, never becoming as rough, for example, as that of the black oak. Acorns - large and stemless, or nearly so. Cup - flat saucer-shape, bulging, very shallow, nearly smooth, with small scales. Nut - about one inch long, somewhat egg-shape; bitter. October. Found - from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick westward and southward. Very common, especially at the North, and extending farther north than any other Atlantic oak. General Information - A tree fifty to eight feet high, with wood that at the East is porous and not durable (though often of better quality westward). It is used for clapboards and in cooperage. The leaves change in the fall to dark red. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves simple; alternate; edge lobed (edges of the lobes mostly entire, but slightly toothed toward…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire. Outline - long and narrow. Apex - pointed and bristle-tipped. Base - pointed. Leaf - three to six inches long; one to two inches wide; smooth and shining above; somewhat downy beneath; thick and stiff. Bark - smooth and unbroken. Acorns - small, nearly stemless. Cup - shallow. Nuts - rounded; about one half inch in diameter; bitter. October. Found - in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania (Porter), westward to Southeastern Iowa, and southward. Most common west of the Alleghany Mountains. General Information - A tree thirty to fifty feet high, with poor wood, that is used at the West for shingles and clapboards. Note: Of the nine hybrids that have been recognized, most are outside of our limits or entirely local. Mention need be made only of tow: Q. heterophylla, Michaux ("Bartram's Oak"). Staten Island and New Jersey to Delaware and North Carolina; Q. Rudkini, Britt., New Jersey. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites. The Oak "Live thy Life, Young and old, Like yon oak, Bright in spring, Living gold; Summer-rich, Then; and then Autumn-changed, Sober-hued Gold again. All his leaves fall'n at length, Look, he stands, Trunk and bough, Naked strength.: Alfred (Lord) Tennyson, 1889.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire. Outline - long and narrow. Apex - pointed and bristle-tipped.…

Leaves - simple, opposite; finely and sharply toothed. Outline - broadly oval, or broadly reverse egg-shape. Apex - rounded, sometimes pointed. Base - rounded, sometimes slightly pointed. Quite variable. Leaf/Stem - short and smooth, the edges slightly winged, the wings straight. Leaf - about one and a half to two inches long; smooth; shining above. Flowers - white, in rather large and flat, stemless bunches, at the ends of branches. May. Berries - oval, blackish, sweet and edible. Found - in Connecticut and Southern New York to Michigan and southward. General Information - A small tree fifteen to twenty feet high, or oftenest at the North a low, much-branching shrub. Usually with some of its branches stunted and bare. The tonic bark is sometimes used medicinally.

Genus Viburnum, L. (Haw and Viburnum)

Leaves - simple, opposite; finely and sharply toothed. Outline - broadly oval, or broadly reverse egg-shape.…

Leaves - simple; indeterminate in position because of their closeness, but arranged along the branches in two-leaved, sheathed bunches. Leaf - needle-shape, about one inch long, pointed, stiff, curved, rounded on the back, grooved above. Cones - nearly two inches long, gray, usually in pairs, and curved like small horns, with a peculiar habit of always pointing in the same direction as the branches. Scales - blunt, smooth, not armed with points or knobs. Found - along the northern frontier of the United States and far northward. Its best growth is north of Lake Superior. General Information - A small evergreen tree, or often a shrub, five to thirty feet high, with long, spreading branches, and light, soft wood that is of but slight value.

Genus Pinus, L. (Pine)

Leaves - simple; indeterminate in position because of their closeness, but arranged along the branches…

Leaves - simple; indeterminate in position because of their closeness, but arranged along the branches in two-leaved sheathed bunches. Leaf - needle-shape, about two and one half inches long, stiff; outer side smooth and rounded; inner side hollowed. Cones - about three and one half inches long, of a light yellow color, stemless, often united in clusters of fours. Scales - with a stout spine, widening at its base, one sixth of an inch in length. Found - within narrower limits than any other American Pine; along the Alleghany Mountains from Pennsylvania to Tennessee, especially upon Table Mountain in North Carolina, one of the highest peaks of the range. General Information - A tree ten to fifty feet high, with light and soft wood, largely used for charcoal.

Genus Pinus, L. (Pine)

Leaves - simple; indeterminate in position because of their closeness, but arranged along the branches…