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Two Chinese men use the abacus to calculate for their business. "The abacus was one of the earliest aids to calculation." -Hill, 1921

Chinese Abacus

Two Chinese men use the abacus to calculate for their business. "The abacus was one of the earliest…

Used in businesses and bookkeeping, the adding machine was a device used for calculations. "One of the first successful adding and listing machines (courtesy of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company)." -Hill, 1921

Adding Machine

Used in businesses and bookkeeping, the adding machine was a device used for calculations. "One of the…

"The Boyer Machine Shop, St. Louis, where one of the first successful adding and listing machines was born." -Hill, 1921

Boyer Machine Shop

"The Boyer Machine Shop, St. Louis, where one of the first successful adding and listing machines was…

"There's an end to my troubles," said William Seward Burroughs as he threw into the street the first fifty adding machines he had made. He wished nothing to remain to remind him of this early failure." -Hill, 1921

Inventor: Burroughs

"There's an end to my troubles," said William Seward Burroughs as he threw into the street the first…

"Cross-section of bowling bed showing steel clamp." -Hill, 1921

Steel Clamp

"Cross-section of bowling bed showing steel clamp." -Hill, 1921

"The making of line engravings follows the same general course, with the exception that no halftone screen is needed, the copy to be reproduced being already made up of lines or dots or a combination of them." -Hill, 1921

Line Engraving

"The making of line engravings follows the same general course, with the exception that no halftone…

"The Benday process, so called, is the use of mechanical appliances for adding lines or stipples to either drawings or plates. Its use is very extensive in the making of tint blocks or color work, used either in connection with line or half-tone key plates." -Hill, 1921

Benday Engraving

"The Benday process, so called, is the use of mechanical appliances for adding lines or stipples to…

"Cross-section of Goodyear welt shoe, showing the different parts and their relation to each other." -Hill, 1921

Parts of a Welt Shoe

"Cross-section of Goodyear welt shoe, showing the different parts and their relation to each other."…

"Longitudinal section of hopper dredger, employed on the River Clyde. The vessel steams to place of working and is moored by the Steam Winches A A at bow and stern to buoys, the Bucket Ladder B is then lowered by steam power, and thereafter Buckets set in motion by gearing C C. The depth of water at which the Bucket Ladder dredges is regulated by the Hoisting Shears and Chain Barrel D D, driven by shafting E E from the Engines. The Buckets discharge the material by the shoot F into the Hopper G. The dredged material is discharged by the doors of the Hopper being opened by the Lifting Chains H H. These doors are hinged on to the side of Vessel, and suspended at centre by the Lifting Chains, which are connected to geared Crab Winches I I." -Hill, 1921

Hopper Dredger

"Longitudinal section of hopper dredger, employed on the River Clyde. The vessel steams to place of…

"Sectional view of diving bell and barge, employed on the River Clyde. All the appliances are worked by steam, rendering manual labour unnecessary. A is the Bell, which is raised and lowered by means of the Chain and Steam Winch B. c c are Seats within the Bell; d d, Footboards. E, Air-pipe entering the Bell at f, the air being supplied by Air-pump G driven by the Engine H. J is a Steam Crane for raising or lowering material. K K, Steam Winches for working moorings and shifting position of the barge." -Hill, 1921

Barge with Diving Bell

"Sectional view of diving bell and barge, employed on the River Clyde. All the appliances are worked…

Oak Hill Plantation was James Monroe's estate in Loudoun County, Virginia. It was built for the fifth U.S. president in 1808.

Oak Hill Plantation, Monroe's Estate

Oak Hill Plantation was James Monroe's estate in Loudoun County, Virginia. It was built for the fifth…

A market cross is a structure used to mark a market square in market towns, originally from Western European architecture. Market crosses can be found in most market towns in Britain, with those in Scotland known as "mercat crosses". British emigrants often installed such crosses in their new cities and several can be found in Canada and Australia.

Market Cross

A market cross is a structure used to mark a market square in market towns, originally from Western…

"The bull terrier was originally from a cross between the bulldog and the terrier. It is smaller than the bulldog, lively, docile, and very courageous." -Vaughan, 1906

Bull Terrier

"The bull terrier was originally from a cross between the bulldog and the terrier. It is smaller than…

The Capitoline Hill is a Roman hill between the Forum and the Campus Martius. The Cloaca Maxima was one of the world's earliest sewage systems. "The Capitoline and Cloaca Maxima. A restoration." -Allen, 1890

Capitoline and Cloaca Maxima

The Capitoline Hill is a Roman hill between the Forum and the Campus Martius. The Cloaca Maxima was…

The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch in Rome between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill.

Arch of Constantine

The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch in Rome between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill.

"Loxia leucoptera. White-winged Crossbill. Rosy-red, sometimes carmined or even crimsoned, obscured on middle of back, paling on lower belly and crissum, latter whitish with dusky centres of the feathers. Scapulars black, this color sometimes meeting across lower back. Wing- and tail-feathers black, with white, forming two cross-bars, sometimes confluent in one large patch. Rather larger than the next, the bill thinner and more attenuate." Elliot Coues, 1884

White-winged Crossbill

"Loxia leucoptera. White-winged Crossbill. Rosy-red, sometimes carmined or even crimsoned, obscured…

"Melospiza fasciata. Song Sparrow. Silver-tongue. Below, white, slightly shaded with brownish on the flanks and crissum; with numerous black-centred, brown-edged streaks cross breast and along sides, usually forming a pectoral blotch and coalescing into maxillary stripes bounding the white throat; crown dull bay, with fine black streaks, divided in the middle and bounded on either side by ashy-whitish lines; vague brown or dusky and whitish markings on sides of the head; a brown post-ocular stripe over the gray auriculars, and another, not so well defined, from angle of mouth below the auriculars; the interscapular streaks black, with bay and ashy-white edgings; rump and cervix grayish-brown, with merely a few bay marks; wings with dull bay edgings, the coverts and inner quills marked like the interscapulars; tail plain brown, with darker shaft lines, on the middle feathers at least, and often with obsolete transverse wavy markings. Very constant in plumage, the chief difference being in the sharpness and breadth of the markings, due in part to the wear of the feathers. In worn midsummer plumage, the streaking is very sharp, narrow, and black, from wearing of the rufous and whitish, especially observable below where the streaks contrast with white, and giving the impression of heavier streaking than in fall and winter, when in fresher feather, the markings are softer and more suffuse. The aggregation of spots into a blotch on the middle of the breast is usual. Bill dark brown, paler below; feet pale brow." Elliot Coues, 1884

Song Sparrow

"Melospiza fasciata. Song Sparrow. Silver-tongue. Below, white, slightly shaded with brownish on the…

An illustration of a young girl sitting in in a ornately carved chair needle pointing.

Young Girl Needle Pointing

An illustration of a young girl sitting in in a ornately carved chair needle pointing.

"Fig. 62 Skull of common fowl, enlarged. from nature by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. The names of bones and some other parts are printed, requiring no explanation; but observe the following points: The distinction of none of the bones composing the brain-case (the upper back expanded part) can be found in a mature skull. The brain is contained between the occipital, sphenoidals, squamosals, parietals and part of frontal; the ethmoidals belong to the same group of cranial bones proper. All other bones, excepting the three otic ear-bones, are bones of the face and jaws. The lower jaw, of five bones, is drawn detached; it articulates by the black surface marked articular with the prominence just above- the quadratic bone. Observe that from this quadrate a series of bones quadrato-jugal, jugal, maxillary-makes a slender rod running to the premaxillary; this is the zygoma, or jugal bar. Observe from the quadrate also another series, composed of pterygoid and palatine bones, to the premaxillary; this is the pterygo-palatine bar; it slides along a median fixed axis of the skull, the rostrum, which bears the loose vomer at its end. The under mandible, quadrate, pterygoid, and vomer are the only movable bones of this skull. But when the quadrate rocks back and forth, as it does by its upper joint, its lower end pulls and pushes upon the upper mandible, by means of the jugal and pterygo-palatine bars, setting the whole scaffolding of the upper jaw in motion. This motion hinges upon the elasticity of the bones of the forehead, at the thin place just where the reference-lines from the words "lacrymal" and "mesethmoid" cross each other. The dark oval space behind the quadrate is the external orifice of the ear; the parts in it to which the three reference-lines go are diagrammatic, not actual representations; thus, the quadrate articulates with a large pro-otic as well as with the squamosal. The great excavation at the middle of the figure, containing the cirlet of the unshaded bones, is the left orbital cavity, orbit, or socket of the eye. The mesethmoid includes most of the background of this cavity, shaded diagonally. The upper one of the two processes of bone extending into it from behind is post-frontal or sphenotic process; the under one (just over the quadrate) is the squamosal process. A bone not shown, the presphenoid, lies just in front of the oval black space over the end of basisphenoid. This black oval is the optic foramen, through which the nerve of sight passes from the brain-cavity to the eye. The black dot a little behind the optic foramen is the orifice of exit of a part of the trifacial nerve. The black mark under the letters "on" of the word "frontal" is the olfactory foramen, where the nerve of smell emerges from the brain-box to go to the nose. The nasal cavity is the black space behind nasal and covered by that bone, and in the oval blank before it. The parts of the beak covered by horn are only premaxillary, nasal, and dentary. The condyle articulates with the first cervical vertebra; just above it, not shown, is the foramen magnum, or great hole through which the spinal medulla, or main nervous cord, passes from the spinal column. The basioccipital is hidden, excepting its condyle; so is much of the basisphenoid. The prolongation forward of the basisphenoid, marked "rostrum," and bearing the vomer at its end, is the parasphenoid, as far as its thickened under border is concerned. Between the fore end of the pterygoid and the basisphenoidal rostrum, is the site of the basipterygoid process, by which the bones concerned articulate by smooth facets; further forward, the palatines ride freely upon the parasphenoidal rostrum. In any passerine bird , the vomer would be thick in front, and forked behind, riding like the palatine upon the rostrum. The palatine seems to run into the maxillary in this view; but it continues on to premaxillary. The maxillo-palatine is an important bone which cannot be seen in the figure because it extends horizontally into the paper from the maxillary about where the reference life "maxillary" goes to that bone. The general line from the condyle to the end of the vomer is the cranial axis, basis cranii, or base of the cranium. This skull is widest across the post-frontal; next most so across the bulge of the jugal bar." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Common Fowl

"Fig. 62 Skull of common fowl, enlarged. from nature by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. The names of bones…

"Chordediles poptue. Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and tawny, the former in excess; below from the breast transversely barred with blackish and white or pale fulvous; throat with a large white (male) or tawny (female cross-bars tail blackish, with distant pale marbled cross-bars and a large white spot (wanting in the female) on one or both webs of nearly all the feathers toward the end; primaries dusky, unmarked except by one large white spot on outer five, about midway between their base and tip; secondaries like primaries, bit with whitish tips and imperfect cross-bars. Sexes nearly alike: Female with the white spaces on the quills, but that on the tail replaced by tawny or not evident." Elliot Coues, 1884

Small Night-hawk

"Chordediles poptue. Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and tawny, the former…

"Chordediles poptue. Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and tawny, the former in excess; below from the breast transversely barred with blackish and white or pale fulvous; throat with a large white (male) or tawny (female cross-bars tail blackish, with distant pale marbled cross-bars and a large white spot (wanting in the female) on one or both webs of nearly all the feathers toward the end; primaries dusky, unmarked except by one large white spot on outer five, about midway between their base and tip; secondaries like primaries, bit with whitish tips and imperfect cross-bars. Sexes nearly alike: Female with the white spaces on the quills, but that on the tail replaced by tawny or not evident." Elliot Coues, 1884

Large Night-hawk

"Chordediles poptue. Night-hawk. Bull-bat. Above, mottled with black, brown, gray and tawny, the former…

"Strix nebulosa. Barred Owl. Hoot Owl. American Wood Owl. Toes fully feathered, nearly or quite to the claws, which are blackish; bill yellow; iris black. Of medium size in this genus. Markings of back and breast in cross-bars, of belly in lengthwise stripes. Above, umber-brown or liver-color, everywhere with white or tawny, or both; breast the same; on the belly the pattern changing abruptly to heavy dusky shaft-stripes on a white or tawny ground; crissum the same; feet speckled with dusky; wings and tail like the back or rather darker, regularly barred with gray, light brown or tawny, some of the bars usually making white spots at their ends, and the markings of the wing-coverts rather in spots than bars. Lining of wings tawny, with some dusky spotting. Facial disc set in a frame of black and white specks, with blackened eye-lids, and obscurely watered with lighter and darker colors in rings around the eye as a centre, the bristly feathers about the bill mixed black and white, or white at base, blackened terminally. A notably large and somewhat impressive owl of Eastern North America, common in woodland of the U.S. especially southerly; not known to range much north of the U.S. though occurring in parts of Canada, and not reported from the West, where apparently replaced by S. occidentalis." Elliot Coues, 1884

Barred Owl

"Strix nebulosa. Barred Owl. Hoot Owl. American Wood Owl. Toes fully feathered, nearly or quite to the…

"Surnia funerea. American Hawk Owl. Day Owl. Bill and eyes yellow; claws brownish-black. Upper parts bistre-brown, darkest and almost blackish on the head, where profusely spotted with small round white mark, to which succeeds a nuchal interval less spotted or free from spots, then an area of larger and lengthened spots; scapulars profusely spotted with white in large pattern, forming a scapular bar as in Scops; back and wing-coverts more or less spotted with white also; primaries and secondaries with with white spots in pairs on opposite edges of the feathers. Tail broken-barred with white or pale gray, usually narrowly and distinctly, on one or both webs, and tipped with the same; but there is great individual variation in this respect, as may also be said of the amount and character of the spotting of the upper parts. Under parts from the breast backward, including the crissum, closely and regularly cross-barred with rich reddish-brown, or even reddish-brown, or even reddish-black, upon a white ground, the alternating bars of color usually of about equal widths - if anything, the white the broadest.

Hawk Owl

"Surnia funerea. American Hawk Owl. Day Owl. Bill and eyes yellow; claws brownish-black. Upper parts…

"Nyctala - Saw-whet Owls. Skull and ear-parts highly unsymmetrical, the the latter of great size, and fully operculate. Head very large (as in Strix), without plumicorns; facial disc complete, with centric eye. Nostril at edge of the cere, which is inflated or not. Tail from 1/2 to 2/3rds as long as the wing, rounded. Third and 4th primaries longest; 1st quite short; 2 or 3 emarginate on inner webs. Feet thickly and closely feathered to the claws. In this interesting genus the ear-parts are of great size, and reach the extreme of asymmetry, the whole skull seeming misshapen." Glaucidium. Gnome Owls. Sparrow Owls. Pygmy owls. Size very small. Head perfectly smooth; no plumicorns; ear-parts small, non-operculate; facial disc very incomplete, the eye not centric. Nostril circular, opening in the tumid cere; bill robust. Tarsus fully and closely feathered, but toes only bristly for the most part. Wings short and much rounded, the 4th primary longest, the 1st quite short, the 3 outer ones emarginate, and next one or two sinuate. Tail long, about 3/4ths as long as the wing, even or nearly so. Claws strong, much curved. A large genus of very small owls, mostly of tropical countries. The numerous species, chiefly of warm parts of America, are in dire confusion, but the only two known to inhabit N. Am. are well determined. The plumage of many or most species is dichromatic, as in Scops, there being a red and a gray phase independently of age, season, or sex; but the red is not known to occur in our G. gnoma. The upper parts are marked with spots or lines; bars, or rows of spots, cross the wings and tail; the under parts are streaked; there is a cervical collar." Elliot Coues, 1884

Saw-whet and Sparrow Owls

"Nyctala - Saw-whet Owls. Skull and ear-parts highly unsymmetrical, the the latter of great size, and…

"Speotyto cunicularia hypogae'a. Burrowing Owl. Adult: Above, dull grayish-brown, profusely spotted with whitish; the markings mostly rounded and paired on each feather, but anteriorly lengthened. Quills with 4-6 whitish bars, entire or broken into cross-rows of spots; tail-feathers similarly marked. There is much individual variation in the tone of the ground-color, and size and number of the spots, which may also be rather ochrey than whitish. Superciliary line, chin, and throat, white, the two latter separated by a dark brown jugular collar; auruculars brown; facial bristles black-shafted. Under parts white or pale ochrey, the breast, belly, and sides barred with traverse spots of brown, in a pretty regular manner; legs and under tail-coverts unmarked. Lining of wings tawny-white, dusky-spotted on the primary coverts." Elliot Coues, 1884

Burrowing Owl

"Speotyto cunicularia hypogae'a. Burrowing Owl. Adult: Above, dull grayish-brown, profusely spotted…

"The most noteworthy of the successors of Palladio at Venice were Scamozzi, and Longhena, the architect of the Della Salute church. Some of the churches of this style retain the Byzantine system of the Greek cross with barrel-vaultings and a central dome resting on four pillars or piers. Others, again, have the form of the basilica but with a system of their own, which produces a beautiful effect. This system consists of smaller domes in the aisles, all resting on pierces masses of masonry with barrel-vaultings connected with them, as, for instance San Salvador." The Basilica di Santa Maria della Salute (Basilica of St Mary of Health/Salvation), commonly known simply as the Salute, is a famous church in Venice, placed scenically at a narrow finger of land which lies between the Grand Canal and the Bacino di San Marco on the lagoon, visible as one enters the Piazza San Marco from the water. While it has the status of a minor basilica, its decorative and distinctive profile and location make it among the most photographed churches in Italy.

Della Salute Church and Custom House

"The most noteworthy of the successors of Palladio at Venice were Scamozzi, and Longhena, the architect…

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his example necessarily entailed imitation and produced effects on subsequent times. When his deviations were moderate, they were considered by his imitators merely as marks of the originality of his wonderful talent, and by this means proved stepping-stones to the degeneration which marked the ensuing period of the Roccoco style. Amongst his architectural works, the design of the Capitol at Rome, with its wings, may be considered as the most pleasing, whilst as a testimony to his lofty genius the mighty and glorious dome of St. Peter's at Rome, which has no rival in the world, must be adducted as a striking instance."

Modern Capital at Rome

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his…

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his example necessarily entailed imitation and produced effects on subsequent times. When his deviations were moderate, they were considered by his imitators merely as marks of the originality of his wonderful talent, and by this means proved stepping-stones to the degeneration which marked the ensuing period of the Roccoco style. Amongst his architectural works, the design of the Capitol at Rome, with its wings, may be considered as the most pleasing, whilst as a testimony to his lofty genius the mighty and glorious dome of St. Peter's at Rome, which has no rival in the world, must be adducted as a striking instance. This dome was only completed after Michel-Angelo's death. Both as regards its colossal dimensions, as well as its beautiful proportions and lines, it produces, both internally and externally, a most wonderful impression. It should be remarkable that Michel-Angelo, like Bramante before him, selected the form of the Greek cross for his church, and planned the dome accordingly, and that the nave, which is by Carlo Maderno, is, both externally and internally, prejudicial to the effect of the dome."The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri), officially known in Italian as the Basilica Papale di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St. Peter's Basilica, is located within the Vatican City. St. Peter's has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world, holding 60,000 people. It is regarded as one of the holiest Christian sites and has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". In Catholic tradition, it is the burial site of its namesake Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, according to tradition, first Bishop of Rome and therefore first in the line of the papal succession.

Back View of St. Peter's, Rome

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his…

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating them is the centrum of any vertebra, bearing e, and epapophysis, and y, a hypapophysis; n, n, neurapophyses; d, d, diapophyses; ns, bifid neural spine; pl, pl, pleurapophyses; h, h, haemapophyses; hs, bifid haemal spine. Drawn by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, USA, After Owen. The Axial Skeleton of a bird or any vertebrated animal, that is, one having a back-bone, exhibits in cross-section two rings or hoops, one above and the other below a central point, like the upper and lower loops of a figure 8. The upper ring is the neural arch, so called because such cylinder encloses a section of the cerebro-spinal axis, or principal nervous system of a vertebrate (brain and spinal cord, whence arise all the nerves of the body, excepting those of the sympathetic nervous system). The lower ring is the haema arch, which similarly contains a section of the principal blood vessals and viscera.

Axial Skeleton

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating…

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his example necessarily entailed imitation and produced effects on subsequent times. When his deviations were moderate, they were considered by his imitators merely as marks of the originality of his wonderful talent, and by this means proved stepping-stones to the degeneration which marked the ensuing period of the Roccoco style. Amongst his architectural works, the design of the Capitol at Rome, with its wings, may be considered as the most pleasing, whilst as a testimony to his lofty genius the mighty and glorious dome of St. Peter's at Rome, which has no rival in the world, must be adducted as a striking instance. This dome was only completed after Michel-Angelo's death. Both as regards its colossal dimensions, as well as its beautiful proportions and lines, it produces, both internally and externally, a most wonderful impression. It should be remarkable that Michel-Angelo, like Bramante before him, selected the form of the Greek cross for his church, and planned the dome accordingly, and that the nave, which is by Carlo Maderno, is, both externally and internally, prejudicial to the effect of the dome."The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri), officially known in Italian as the Basilica Papale di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St. Peter's Basilica, is located within the Vatican City. St. Peter's has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world, holding 60,000 people. It is regarded as one of the holiest Christian sites and has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". In Catholic tradition, it is the burial site of its namesake Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, according to tradition, first Bishop of Rome and therefore first in the line of the papal succession.

Section of the Dome of St. Peter's, Rome

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his…

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his example necessarily entailed imitation and produced effects on subsequent times. When his deviations were moderate, they were considered by his imitators merely as marks of the originality of his wonderful talent, and by this means proved stepping-stones to the degeneration which marked the ensuing period of the Roccoco style. Amongst his architectural works, the design of the Capitol at Rome, with its wings, may be considered as the most pleasing, whilst as a testimony to his lofty genius the mighty and glorious dome of St. Peter's at Rome, which has no rival in the world, must be adducted as a striking instance. This dome was only completed after Michel-Angelo's death. Both as regards its colossal dimensions, as well as its beautiful proportions and lines, it produces, both internally and externally, a most wonderful impression. It should be remarkable that Michel-Angelo, like Bramante before him, selected the form of the Greek cross for his church, and planned the dome accordingly, and that the nave, which is by Carlo Maderno, is, both externally and internally, prejudicial to the effect of the dome." The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri), officially known in Italian as the Basilica Papale di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St. Peter's Basilica, is located within the Vatican City. St. Peter's has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world, holding 60,000 people. It is regarded as one of the holiest Christian sites and has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". In Catholic tradition, it is the burial site of its namesake Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, according to tradition, first Bishop of Rome and therefore first in the line of the papal succession.

Ground-plan of St. Peter's, Rome

"Michel-Angelo assumed such considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his…

"Coturnix dactylisonans. Messina Quail. Migratory Quail. Common Quail of Europe. Upper parts variegated with buff or whitish and black upon a mixed reddish-brown and gray ground, the most conspicuous markings being sharp lance-lineal lengthwise stripes of buff or whitish over most of the upper parts, these dashes mostly edged with black; other less prominent buff or whitish cross-bars, several to a feather, likewise framed in black. Crown mixed brown and black, with sharp median and lateral buff stripes. Throat white, bounded before by a dark bar curving down behind the auriculars; behind, by a necklace of ruddy-brown, blackish, or whitish spots; chin varied with dark marks n advance of the auricular bar. Under parts fading to whitish from the buff or pale yellowish-brown breast, without any dark crossbars, but the long feathers of the sides and flanks with large and conspicuous white shaft-stripes and otherwise variegated with black, brown, and buff. Primaries fuscous, spotted with light brown on outer webs; secondaries similar, but the markings becoming bars on both webs. Tail-feathers brownish-black, much varied with shaft-lines, cross-bars, and edgings of buff; crissum immaculate, like the abdomen. Bill dark; feet pale; iris dark brown." Elliot Coues, 1884

Common Quail of Europe

"Coturnix dactylisonans. Messina Quail. Migratory Quail. Common Quail of Europe. Upper parts variegated…

Wollaton Hall is a country house standing on a small but prominent hill in Wollaton, Nottingham, England. Wollaton Park is the area of parkland that the stately house stands in. The house itself is a natural history museum, with other museums in the out-buildings. The surrounding land is regularly used for large scale outdoor events such as rock concerts and festivals."It is especially this vitiated taste in form and details which characterized the Elizabethan Renaissance [shown here]. The usual Roccoco Renaissance forms also occur in it, as, for instance, the quadrant-shaped gables curving alternately inwards and outwards, as also pilasters and columns intersected by quoins and bands; and various grotesque and debased forms. Enriched quoins are also freely used at angles and jambs."

Wollaton Hall

Wollaton Hall is a country house standing on a small but prominent hill in Wollaton, Nottingham, England.…

St Paul's Cathedral is the Anglican cathedral on Ludgate Hill, in the City of London, and the seat of the Bishop of London. The present building dates from the 17th century and is generally reckoned to be London's fifth St Paul's Cathedral, although the number is higher if every major medieval reconstruction is counted as a new cathedral. The cathedral sits on the highest point of the City of London, which originated as a Roman trading post situated on the River Thames. The cathedral is one of London's most visited sights.

St. Paul's London

St Paul's Cathedral is the Anglican cathedral on Ludgate Hill, in the City of London, and the seat of…

The St-Paul-St-Louis Church is located in Paris on Rue Saint Antoine in the Marais. The church was begun in 1627 and completed in 1641 and is an examaple of Jesuit architecture. It was designed based on the Gesú church in Rome. The letters IHS, as shown on the front of the church, is an abbreviation, the first three letters, of Jesus' name in Greek, ΙΗΣΟΥΣ, translated into English characters. "In this style curved lines of the most varied description supersede all straight lines both in ground plans and in designs, whilst the most ordinary and characteristic embellishments are volutes, shellfish, and scrolls; groups of fruit and garlands of flowers, hangings, curtains, etc. [shown here]." "During the time that the license of the Roccoco Style prevailed, the elements of the ancient columnar orders were often misapplied, engaged columns and pilasters were frequently so connected with other side-pilasters which were recessed behind them to the number of one, two, or even three, that the cornices and, in fact, all horizontal mouldings were separately profiled over each column or pilaster [shown here]."

Façade of the Church of St. Paul and St. Louis at Paris

The St-Paul-St-Louis Church is located in Paris on Rue Saint Antoine in the Marais. The church was begun…

"Tringoides macularius. Spotted Sandpiper. Above, silken ashen-olive (quaker-color- as in our cuckoos) with a coppery lustre, finely varied with blackish, in streaks on head and neck, elsewhere in wavy or otherwise irregular cross-bars. line over eye, and entire under parts, pure white, with numerous sharp circular black spots, larger and more crowded in the female than in the male. Secondaries. and their coverts broadly white-tipped; some white feathers along bend of wing; axillars and lining of wings white, the latter with an oblique dusky bar. Primaries and most of the secondaries brownish-black, with brown shafts and large white basal spaces, concealed in the folded wing, conspicuous in flight. Upper tail-coverts and middle tail-feathers like back; lateral ones successively acquiring white tips; outer with several incomplete white bars. Feet pinkish-white, drying yellowish. Bill flesh-color, black-tipped; sometimes much of culmen dusky; sometimes much of under mandible orange." Elliot Coues, 1884

Spotted Sandpiper

"Tringoides macularius. Spotted Sandpiper. Above, silken ashen-olive (quaker-color- as in our cuckoos)…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary; aln, ali-nasal cartilage; en, septo-nasal; n, nasal bone; l, lacrymal; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, ps, prespeenoidal region; as, alisphenoid; f, frontal; p, parietal; sq, squamosal; so, superoccipital; eo, exoccipital; oc, occipital condyle; st, the cross-like object, the stapes, whose foot fits fenestra ovalis; q, quadrate; pg, pterygoid; qj, quadrato-jugal; jugal; pa, palatine; mx, maxillary. In the mandible: d, dentary; su, surangular; a, angular; ar, atricular; iap, internal angular process; pap, posterior angular process. 2, optic foramen; 5, foramen ovale, for inferior divisions of the 5th nerve." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull Profile

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary;…

Leiden Christi is a drawing that was printed by German artist Albrecht Pfister in 1470. It depicts Jesus being resurrected from his tomb holding a cross. Below him are two soldiers sleeping.

Leiden Christi

Leiden Christi is a drawing that was printed by German artist Albrecht Pfister in 1470. It depicts Jesus…

"Buteo vulgaris. hawk of Europe, Upper parts dark brown, very variable in shade according to season or wear of the feathers, varied with paler brown, or even reddish-brown edging of the feathers, but without the clear fawn color of the young; the feathers of the crown showing whitish when distributed, and usually sharp, dark shaft-lines; the upper tail-coverts chestnut and white, with blackish bars. Quills and tail-feathers as below, but the inner webs of the former showing more decided dark cross-bars upon a lighter marbled-whitish ground, and the latter having broader and sharper, dark wavy bars. These large quills, and particularly those of the tail, vary much in shade according to wear, the new feathers being strongly slate-colored, the old ones plain dark brown. The tail, however, never shows any trace often rich chestnut that obtains in the adult B borealis. Iris brown, never yellow; feet, cere, gape, and base of under mandible rich chrome-yellow; rest of bill and claws bluish-black." Elliot Coues, 1884

European Hawk

"Buteo vulgaris. hawk of Europe, Upper parts dark brown, very variable in shade according to season…

"But perhaps the most effective and suitable employment of iron is shown in connection with glass, as has been exemplified in the temporary buildings for exhibitions, for which the Great Exhibition in London, in the year 1851, furnished the model which has so often been followed subsequently. This building was afterwards removed to Sydenham, and is now known as the Crystal Palace. In this structure the walls as well as the vaulted roof consist of glass inserted between iron girders, after the pattern of large conservatories and winter-gardens, especially of that in the Champs Élydées at Paris, which is no longer in existence. Although this building scarcely seems like an architectural construction, but appears to form a peculiar specialty, still an impression is produced, which is hitherto unparalleled by its transparent termination in all directions, and by its dimensions, which have never been before attained in enclosed spaces. The distinguishing height of the main body of the building, which is divided into several naves and galleries , and if the loftier transept, which is 174 English feet high, is too considerable to recall the conservatory, which first suggested the idea to Paxton of constructing such a building on a large scale for the Great Exhibition. The visible stability of the system of construction gives a certain feeling of security as a counterpoise to the astonishment which the enormous size creates. On the other hand it is not to be denied that artistic execution in the forms of the constructive parts is wanting, though many difficulties would perhaps have had to be overcome to attain this without the structure suffering as regards solidity. These constructive elements, moreover, are not used as leading to further æsthetic development, so that a real artistic value can only be attributed to the novel impression of the whole, which is produced by the large dimensions and transparent walls."

Crystal Palace at Sydenham

"But perhaps the most effective and suitable employment of iron is shown in connection with glass, as…

Patrick Henry, born in 1736, was an active figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered for his "Give me Liberty, or give me Death!" speech. He was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Along with Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, he is remembered as one of the most influential and radical advocates of the American Revolution and the republic. He was strong in his denunciations of corruption in government officials and his defense of historic rights June 6, 1799. In 1798 President John Adams nominated Henry special emissary to France, but he had to decline because of failing health. At the urging of Washington was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates as a Federalist. Three months prior to taking his seat in the state legislature, he died of stomach cancer on June 6, 1799, while at Red Hill, his family's large plantation.

Patrick Henry

Patrick Henry, born in 1736, was an active figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered for…

Section liners are used to make a series of diagonal lines to create cross hatching.

Section Liner

Section liners are used to make a series of diagonal lines to create cross hatching.

A homemade section liner device made by slipping a wooden block to hold the triangle to make cross hatching lines.

Section Lining Device

A homemade section liner device made by slipping a wooden block to hold the triangle to make cross hatching…

"Draw three-inch square and one-inch square. From the corners of inner square draw lines to outer square at 15 degrees and 75 degrees, with the two triangles in combination. Mark points with spacers 3/16" inside of each line of this outside cross, and complete figure with triangles in combination." —French, 1911

Drawing Maltese Cross using T-square, Spacers, and Triangles

"Draw three-inch square and one-inch square. From the corners of inner square draw lines to outer square…

This blower has a drum consisting of two side plates and a series of partition plates curved in a cross section. The fan is usually long in relation to the diameter.

Centrifugal Blower

This blower has a drum consisting of two side plates and a series of partition plates curved in a cross…

"The illustration gives conventions for a number of different materials. Those in the first line are accepted by practically all who use conventional cross—hatching... Those given are part of the codes of government standards of the Bureau of Steam Engineering and the Bureau of Construction U.S.N." —French, 1911

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Material Symbols

"The illustration gives conventions for a number of different materials. Those in the first line are…

A conventional cross hatching material symbol for cast iron.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Cast Iron

A conventional cross hatching material symbol for cast iron.

A conventional cross hatching symbol for Babbitt, metal composed of tin and copper.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Babbitt

A conventional cross hatching symbol for Babbitt, metal composed of tin and copper.

The conventional material symbol using cross hatching technique for brass.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Brass

The conventional material symbol using cross hatching technique for brass.

A mechanical drawing cross hatching symbol for cast steel.

Mechanical Drawing of Cross Hatching Cast Steel

A mechanical drawing cross hatching symbol for cast steel.

A wrought iron conventional cross hatching symbol.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Wrought Iron

A wrought iron conventional cross hatching symbol.

Conventional cross hatching mechanical drawing of copper.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Copper

Conventional cross hatching mechanical drawing of copper.

The conventional cross hatching mechanical drawing symbol for wrought steel.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Wrought Steel

The conventional cross hatching mechanical drawing symbol for wrought steel.

A conventional face hardened steel, commonly used in military armory, cross hatching mechanical drawing symbol.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Face Hardened Steel

A conventional face hardened steel, commonly used in military armory, cross hatching mechanical drawing…

A conventional leather cross hatching mechanical drawing symbol.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Leather

A conventional leather cross hatching mechanical drawing symbol.

Conventional cross hatching for glass for mechanical drawing.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Glass

Conventional cross hatching for glass for mechanical drawing.

A conventional liquid symbol in cross hatching used in mechanical drawing.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Liquid

A conventional liquid symbol in cross hatching used in mechanical drawing.

Cross hatching conventional symbol for insulating material used in mechanical drawing.

Mechanical Drawing Cross Hatching of Insulating Material

Cross hatching conventional symbol for insulating material used in mechanical drawing.

The garment extender is used to stretch and size tubular portions of garments. The extender comprises three longitudinal bars, namely a first side bar, an intermediate bar, and a second side bar. The first side bar and the intermediate bar are fixedly spaced and secured to each other by vertically spaced cross bars.

Garment Stretcher

The garment extender is used to stretch and size tubular portions of garments. The extender comprises…

"A contour is a line on the surface of the ground which at every point passes through the same elevation, thus the shore line of a body of water represents a contour. If the water should rise one foot the new shore line would be another contour, with foot 'contour interval.'" —French, 1911

Shoreline Contour

"A contour is a line on the surface of the ground which at every point passes through the same elevation,…