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Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Tomb Ceiling

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Tomb Ceiling

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Tomb Ceiling

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Tomb Ceiling

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Tomb Ceiling

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Tomb Ceiling

Painted all-over design from an Egyptian tomb ceiling.

Ptolemaic floral capital from Philae.

Floral Capital

Ptolemaic floral capital from Philae.

Campaniform column.

Egyptian Column

Campaniform column.

Lotus-bundle column from the Temple of Thomthmes III, Karnak.

Egyptian Column

Lotus-bundle column from the Temple of Thomthmes III, Karnak.

Palm capital from the Temple of Edfu.

Palm Capital

Palm capital from the Temple of Edfu.

Lobed lotus capital from the Theban Oasis.

Lobed Lotus Capital

Lobed lotus capital from the Theban Oasis.

Vulture with plumes of royality from the ceiling of a hypostyle hall.

Vulture with Plumes

Vulture with plumes of royality from the ceiling of a hypostyle hall.

Vulture or hawlk in enamel on gold.

Gold Enamel Vulture

Vulture or hawlk in enamel on gold.

Carved wood perfume spoon.

Carved Wooden Perfume Spoon

Carved wood perfume spoon.

Crouching Egyptian sphinx sculpture in the Louvre.

Crouching Sphinx

Crouching Egyptian sphinx sculpture in the Louvre.

Crouching Egyptian sphinx sculpture with ram's head in the Louvre.

Crouching Sphinx

Crouching Egyptian sphinx sculpture with ram's head in the Louvre.

Columned Hall of the Temple of Karnak

Columned Hall

Columned Hall of the Temple of Karnak

<em>N. percnopterus</em>, common to Africa, sometimes found in Southern Europe and in Asia. Males and females tend to live in pairs.

Egyptian Vulture

N. percnopterus, common to Africa, sometimes found in Southern Europe and in Asia. Males and…

Genus <em>ascalaphia</em>, a large owl, native to southern Europe and northern parts of Egypt.

Great Short-Eared Owl

Genus ascalaphia, a large owl, native to southern Europe and northern parts of Egypt.

Ranging as far north as Scandanavia, Iceland, and Greenland in the summer, the European snipe migrates as far south as Egypt and Asia minor during the winter months.

European Snipe

Ranging as far north as Scandanavia, Iceland, and Greenland in the summer, the European snipe migrates…

Found throughout Africa, the sacred (or white) ibis was revered by the ancient Egyptians.

Sacred Ibis

Found throughout Africa, the sacred (or white) ibis was revered by the ancient Egyptians.

"The <em>A. dubia</em> is found in the Nile. Several of this genus, brought from Egypt to Paris packed in bran, were found living, though they had been four months in making the passage." &mdash; Goodrich, 1859

Ampullaria dubia

"The A. dubia is found in the Nile. Several of this genus, brought from Egypt to Paris packed…

"In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was found and gave the first key to the reading of hieroglyphics. On this stone the same inscription was given in three different sets of characters, -the hieroglyphics, the demotic text (a briefer and more running form of hieroglyphics, commonly used in the papyri or manuscripts), and the Greek. By comparing the letters in certain Greek proper names with the letters of the same words in the Egyptian texts, the sounds for which the Egyptian characters stood were discovered. The Greek text, when translated, showed that the inscription was an ordinance of the priests decreeing certain honors to Ptolemy Epiphanes on the occasion of his coronation, 196 B.C. (Ptolemy Epiphanes was one of a line of Greek sovereigns who ruled over Egypt from the time of its conquest by Alexander in the fourth century, to the first century B.C.) It contains a command that the decree should be inscribed in the sacred letters (hieroglyphics), the letters of the country (demotic), and Greek letters, -and this for the convenience of the mixed population of Egypt under its Greek rulers. It was natural to conclude that the three texts were the same in substance, and accordingly earnest efforts were made to decipher the hieroglyphics by aid of the Greek. The first clew was obtained by noticing that certain groups of the hieroglyphic characters were inclosed in oval rings, and that these groups corresponded in relative position with certain proper names, such as Ptolemy, etc., in the Greek text. The following line presents a few of the characters with a group in the oval ring. (Each word is read from right to left)." —Colby, 1899

Excerpt from the Rosetta Stone

"In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was found and gave the first key to the reading of hieroglyphics. On this…

"In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was found and gave the first key to the reading of hieroglyphics. On this stone the same inscription was given in three different sets of characters, -the hieroglyphics, the demotic text (a briefer and more running form of hieroglyphics, commonly used in the papyri or manuscripts), and the Greek. By comparing the letters in certain Greek proper names with the letters of the same words in the Egyptian texts, the sounds for which the Egyptian characters stood were discovered. This image represents Ptolemy or Ptolemaios." —Colby, 1899

Rosetta Stone Sample

"In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was found and gave the first key to the reading of hieroglyphics. On this…

"In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was found and gave the first key to the reading of hieroglyphics. On this stone the same inscription was given in three different sets of characters, -the hieroglyphics, the demotic text (a briefer and more running form of hieroglyphics, commonly used in the papyri or manuscripts), and the Greek. By comparing the letters in certain Greek proper names with the letters of the same words in the Egyptian texts, the sounds for which the Egyptian characters stood were discovered. This image represents Cleopatra, or Kleopatra." &mdash;Colby, 1899

Rosetta Stone

"In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was found and gave the first key to the reading of hieroglyphics. On this…

The Great Pyramid at Gizeh

Gizeh Pyramid

The Great Pyramid at Gizeh

Obelisk of Heliopolis

Obelisk

Obelisk of Heliopolis

"Ramses II was a powerful sovereign, called Sesostris by the Greeks, identified by many with the Pharaoh who oppressed the children of Israel."—Colby, 1899

Ramses II in Profile

"Ramses II was a powerful sovereign, called Sesostris by the Greeks, identified by many with the Pharaoh…

Soldiers of the body guard of Ramses II.

Ramses Soldiers

Soldiers of the body guard of Ramses II.

Anubis, the Guide of the Dead.

Anubis

Anubis, the Guide of the Dead.

"Mummy. Another striking religious custom was the embalming of the dead. It was thought that the soul would reanimate the body at the resurrection, and for this reason great care was taken to preserve the body from decay and provide it with a suitable resting place. Embalming was so skillfully and effectively done that decay was often prevented for thousands of years. The interior of the sepulcher was often decorated, and food and drink were placed beside the body. These houses of the dead were among the finest and the most enduring of Egyptian buildings."&mdash;Colby, 1899

mummy

"Mummy. Another striking religious custom was the embalming of the dead. It was thought that the soul…

An Egyptian Temple

Egyptian Temple

An Egyptian Temple

"Egyptian Sowing. The people were mainly agricultural, but employed rude methods of cultivation. In spite of this, the remarkably fertile soil yielded an abundance of produce, and Egypt was known as the granary of the world."&mdash;Colby, 1899

Sowing

"Egyptian Sowing. The people were mainly agricultural, but employed rude methods of cultivation. In…

"Many of the dung beetles, among which the Sacred Beetle of the Egyptians, <em>Scarabus Aegyptiorum</em>, holds a prominent place, are remarkable for inclosing their eggs in a small pellet of dung, which they then roll along with their hind-legs, until they drop it into a hole which they have dug for its reception." &mdash; Goodrich, 1859

Sacred Beetle

"Many of the dung beetles, among which the Sacred Beetle of the Egyptians, Scarabus Aegyptiorum,…

The coin of the ancient city Acanthus in Egypt.

Coin of Acanthus

The coin of the ancient city Acanthus in Egypt.

"Arabic Architecture.-Tombs of the Califs, Cairo."-Whitney, 1902

Arabic Architecture

"Arabic Architecture.-Tombs of the Califs, Cairo."-Whitney, 1902

"Date Palm is a genus of palms, the most important species of which is the common date palm, the palm tree of Scripture, a native of the N. half of Africa, the S. W. of Asia, and some parts of India, and of which the cultivation is no less wide, and still extending. Some parts of China produce large crops. The stem, which is straight and simple, reaches a height of 30 to 60 feet, and bears a head of 40 to 80 glaucous pinnated leaves, 8 to 10 feet long, and a number of branching spadices, each of which on the female tree bears 180 to 200 fruits. A bunch of dates weighs 20 or 25 pounds, so that an average year's crop may be reckoned at 300 to 600 pounds per tree, and the yield per acre at about 12 times that of corn. This is one of the most important and useful of all the palms. In Egypt, and generally in North Africa, Persia, and Arabia, dates form the principal food, and date palms the principal wealth of the people."&mdash;(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Date Palm

"Date Palm is a genus of palms, the most important species of which is the common date palm, the palm…

Egyptian captivity and forced labor of the Jews.

Captivity of the Jews: Laborers

Egyptian captivity and forced labor of the Jews.

Egyptian captivity and forced labor of the Jews as masons.

Captivity of the Jews: Masons

Egyptian captivity and forced labor of the Jews as masons.

"Karnak is a village in Egypt built on the site of Thebes, on the bank of the Nile, and renowned for its magnificent architectural antiquities. The principal one of these is the Great Temple, 1,200 feet long and 330 feet wide. In this are found great colonades, obelisks, and a vast quantity of sculptures. Various colored marbles, sandstones and granite are used. Other smaller temples abound, beautifully ornamented with mural decorations which portray the kings, divinities and recreations of those ancient peoples. These temples were erected at various times from 1500 B.C. to 28 B.C."&mdash;(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Temple of Karnak

"Karnak is a village in Egypt built on the site of Thebes, on the bank of the Nile, and renowned for…

"Lotus is a name given to various flowers, including several beautiful species of water lily, especially the blue water lily, and the Egyptian water lily which grow in stagnant and slowly running water in the S. of Asia and N. of Africa. The latter grows in the Nile and adjacent rivulets and has a large white flower. The root is eaten by the people who live near the lake Manzaleh. It was the rose of ancient Egypt, the favorite flower of the country, and was often made into wreaths or garlands."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Egyptian Water Lily

"Lotus is a name given to various flowers, including several beautiful species of water lily, especially…

"Nelumbium is the typical and only genus of the order Nelumbiace&aelig;. The species are remarkable for the beauty of their flowers. N. speciosum has magnificent flowers, magenta or white. It does not now grow in Egypt, but is found in India. The rhizome, stalks, and seeds are eaten by the Hindus. A fiber derived from the stalk is used as a wick for lamps in Hindu temples, the plant being considered sacred. The North American Indians eat the rhizomes of N. luteum."&mdash;(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Nelumbium

"Nelumbium is the typical and only genus of the order Nelumbiaceæ. The species are remarkable…

"The enrollment of a mortal among the gods. The mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the deification of mortals; but in the republican times of Greece we find few examples of such deification. The inhabitants of Amphipolis, however, offered sacrifices to Brasidas after his death. In the Greek kingdoms, which arose in the East of the dismemberment of the empire of Alexander, it appears to have been not uncommon for the successor to the throne to offer divine honours to the former sovereign. Such an apotheosis of Ptolemy, king of Egypt, is described by Theocritus in his 17th Idyl" &mdash; Smith, 1873

Apotheosis

"The enrollment of a mortal among the gods. The mythology of Greece contains numerous instances of the…

"Rosetta Stone is the name given to a stone found near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile by a French engineer in 1798. It is a tablet of basalt, with an inscription of the year 136 B. C., during the reign of Ptolemy Epiphanes. The inscription is in hieroglyphic, in demotic, and in Greek. It was deciphered by Dr. Young, and formed the key to the reading of the hieroglyphic characters. It was captured by the English on the defeat of the French forces in Egypt, and is now kept in the British Museum."&mdash;(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Rosetta Stone

"Rosetta Stone is the name given to a stone found near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile by a French engineer…

"Sphinx is a Greek word signifying 'strangler,' applied to certain symbolical forms of Egyptian origin, having the body of a lion, a human or an animal head, and two wings. Various other combinations of animal forms have been called by this name, though they are rather griffins or chim&aelig;ras. Human-headed sphinxes have been called andro-sphinxes; that with the head of a ram, a criosphinx; and that with a hawk's head, a hieracosphinx. The form when complete had the wings added at the sides; but these are of a later period and seem to have originated with the Babylonians or Assyrians. In Egypt the sphinx also occurs as the symbolical form of the monarch considered as a conqueror, the head of the reigning king being placed on a loin's body, the face bearded, and the usual head dress. Thus used, the sphinx was generally male; but in the case of female rulers that figure has a female head and the body of a lioness. The most remarkable sphinx is the Great Sphinx at Gizeh (Giza), a colossal form hewn out of the natural rock, and lying about a quarter of a mile S.E. of the Great Pyramid. It is sculptured out of a spur of the rock itself, to which masonry has been added in certain places to complete the shape, and it measures 172 feet 6 inches long by 56 feet high."&mdash;(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Sphinx

"Sphinx is a Greek word signifying 'strangler,' applied to certain symbolical forms of Egyptian origin,…

"A key. The key was used in very early times, and was probably introduced into Greece from Egypt; although Eustathius states, that in early times all fastenings were made by chains, and that keys were comparatively of a much later invention, which invention he attributes to the Laconians. We have no evidence respecting the materials of which the Greeks made their keys, but among te Romans the larger and coarser sort were made of iron. Those discovered at Pompeii and elsewhere are mostly of bronze. The annexed woodcut represents a key found at Pompeii, the size of which indicated that it was used as a door key." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Clavis

"A key. The key was used in very early times, and was probably introduced into Greece from Egypt; although…

"A sickle; a scythe; a pruning knife or pruning hook; a bill; a falchion; a halbert. As culter denoted a knife with one straight edge, falx signified any simpiliar instrument the single edge of which was curved. By additional epithets the various uses of the falx were indicted. Thus the sickle, because it was used by reapers, was called falx messoria; the scythe, which was employed in mowing hay, was called falx famaria. A rare coin published by Pellerin, shows the head of one of the Lagida, kings of Egypt, wearing the Diadema, and, on the reverse, a man cutting down corn with a sickle. The lower figure is taken from the MSS. of Columelia, and represents a falx vinitoria, or pruning knife of a vinedresser." &mdash; Smith, 1873.

Falx

"A sickle; a scythe; a pruning knife or pruning hook; a bill; a falchion; a halbert. As culter denoted…

"Coin of Ptolemy." &mdash; Smith, 1882

Coin of Ptolemy

"Coin of Ptolemy." — Smith, 1882

The earliest trousers from Egypt.

Trousers

The earliest trousers from Egypt.

Famous Russian explorer who explored parts of Tunis and Upper Egypt.

Dr. William Junker

Famous Russian explorer who explored parts of Tunis and Upper Egypt.

A scene from ancient Egypt, with the pyramids in the background.

Pyramids Scene

A scene from ancient Egypt, with the pyramids in the background.

An Egyptian doodad.

Egyptian doodad

An Egyptian doodad.

"Hounds were also used to pursue game, as may be perceived from the subjoined representation of a huntsman carry home his prey." &mdash; Goodrich, 1844

Egyptian hunter

"Hounds were also used to pursue game, as may be perceived from the subjoined representation of a huntsman…

"The form of the bottle and the use of the blow-pipe are unequivocally indicated; and the green hue, in the painting, of the fused material, taken from the fire at the point of the pipe, cannot fail to show the intention of the artists." — Goodrich, 1844

Egyptian Glassblowers

"The form of the bottle and the use of the blow-pipe are unequivocally indicated; and the green hue,…

"The use of the spindle and loom, sewing, braiding, etc, form the subjects of many of the paintings, as also the process of cultivating flax, beating and combing it." — Goodrich, 1844

Egyptian Weaving

"The use of the spindle and loom, sewing, braiding, etc, form the subjects of many of the paintings,…

"The following is a figure of a hatchel or flax-comb." — Goodrich, 1844

Egyptian Flax-comb

"The following is a figure of a hatchel or flax-comb." — Goodrich, 1844

"The Egyptian chairs of which we have a great variety of representations, were not inferior in elegance to any thing of the kind at the present day." — Goodrich, 1844

Egyptian chair

"The Egyptian chairs of which we have a great variety of representations, were not inferior in elegance…

"Workman drilling a hole in the seat of a chair." — Goodrich, 1844

Egyptian Chairmaker

"Workman drilling a hole in the seat of a chair." — Goodrich, 1844

An Egyptian bow and drill.

Egyptian Bow and Drill

An Egyptian bow and drill.

"An Ethiopian princess on her journey through Upper Egypt to Thebes. The chariot is drawn by oxen, a mode of conveyance in use at this day in Southern Africa." — Goodrich, 1844

Ethiopian Princess

"An Ethiopian princess on her journey through Upper Egypt to Thebes. The chariot is drawn by oxen, a…