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Arch of Titus (Rome)

Arch of Titus

Arch of Titus (Rome)

"Excavating a house at Pompeii from eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii."—Colby, 1899

Pompeii

"Excavating a house at Pompeii from eruption of Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Herculaneum and…

"Early Germans. These German ancestors of ours, for so we must consider them, since the chief element of the English-speaking race is German, continued in the barbarous stage while the Romans advanced to the founding of a great empire and were already on the road to decline; and from the first century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. there was little change in their condition."—Colby, 1899

Germans

"Early Germans. These German ancestors of ours, for so we must consider them, since the chief element…

"A Roman house. In early times the private houses of the Romans were very simple, showing little attempt at adornment or luxury, but in the later days of the republic and under the empire, the dwellings of the wealthy were costly and beautiful."—Colby, 1899

House

"A Roman house. In early times the private houses of the Romans were very simple, showing little attempt…

"Catapult from the Roman military system. The Roman army was divided into legions, each of which contained about 6,000 men, although at first the number was much smaller. Each legion was in turn subdivided into ten cohorts. Besides the legionary soldiers, the army comprised bodies of auxiliar troops from the provinces or the allies of Rome. The common weapons were the pilum, or javelin, and a short sword, but slings and bows were also used."—Colby, 1899

Catapult

"Catapult from the Roman military system. The Roman army was divided into legions, each of which contained…

"Diana, the goddess of the chase."—Colby, 1899

Diana

"Diana, the goddess of the chase."—Colby, 1899

A Roman bakery

Bakery

A Roman bakery

"Martin Luther was born at Eisleben in 1483. He was the son of a poor miner, had entered the Augustinian order, and had become professor of theology at Wittenberg. In the course of his studies he had come to question the practice of the Church in regard to the whole system of penance. Up to this time, however, he had made no open protest, but Tetzel's course in Germany impelled him to public opposition. In 1517 he nailed to the church door at Wittenberg ninety-five theses or propositions, appealing to men's consciences against the practice of 'selling forgiveness.' The widespread discontent in Germany gave to these theses an instant publicity. They were printed and scattered broadcast throughout the country. In them Luther showed no intention to break with the authority of the Roman Catholic Churrch. They were merely propositions for dispute, and he nailed them on the Church door as a challenge to any disuputant who might be willing to argue against them. disputants soon appeared, and the first thing they did was to appeal to the authority of the Church. This led Luther, at first, to question and finally to deny the authority of the Church, as resting not on a divine but on a human basis. He said that the Church was not the source of divine truth, and that the Bible was the sole source. The Reformation now entered on its first phase."—Colby, 1899

Martin Luther

"Martin Luther was born at Eisleben in 1483. He was the son of a poor miner, had entered the Augustinian…

"Queen Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII, by Anne Boleyn. Her reign is one of the most remarkable in English history. It lasted from 1558 to 1603, and in those years England's glory was brighter than it had ever been before. Elizabeth was not extreme in her religious views. she was probably lacking in religious feeling, but on the whole, inclined toward the Protestant system, though not biitter against the Roman Catholic Church. Accordingly, the Church of Elizabeth was less Protestant than that of Edward VI, but did not retain the Roman Catholic doctrines of the Church of Mary and Henry VIII. It was a Protestant Church, but kept the old forms of worship."—Colby, 1899

Queen Elizabeth

"Queen Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII, by Anne Boleyn. Her reign is one of the most remarkable…

"A genus of small herbaceous plants of southern Europe and Africa; they have spinosely toothed leaves, and they are sometimes cultivated for the sake of their beautiful foliage."-Whitney, 1902

Acanthus

"A genus of small herbaceous plants of southern Europe and Africa; they have spinosely toothed leaves,…

"Allocution; from an imperial Roman bronze coin in the British Museum."-Whitney, 1902

Roman Coin

"Allocution; from an imperial Roman bronze coin in the British Museum."-Whitney, 1902

"Round, triangular, or square in plan, often elaborately adorned with sculpture, and bearing inscriptions."-Whitney, 1902

Greek Altar

"Round, triangular, or square in plan, often elaborately adorned with sculpture, and bearing inscriptions."-Whitney,…

"The Greek and Roman conception of the Egyptian deity Amen-Ra, the sun god."-Whitney, 1902

Ammon

"The Greek and Roman conception of the Egyptian deity Amen-Ra, the sun god."-Whitney, 1902

"A jar with two handles; Among the Greek and Roman, a vessel, usually tall and slender having two handles or ears, a narrow neck, and generally a sharp-pointed base for insertion into the ground: used for holding wine, oil, honey, grain, etc."-Whitney, 1902

Amphora

"A jar with two handles; Among the Greek and Roman, a vessel, usually tall and slender having two handles…

"A jar with two handles; Among the Greek and Roman, a vessel, usually tall and slender having two handles or ears, a narrow neck, and generally a sharp-pointed base for insertion into the ground: used for holding wine, oil, honey, grain, etc."-Whitney, 1902

Amphora

"A jar with two handles; Among the Greek and Roman, a vessel, usually tall and slender having two handles…

"Roman As in the British Museum."-Whitney, 1902

As

"Roman As in the British Museum."-Whitney, 1902

"Eagle is a name given to many birds of prey in the family Falconidæ. The golden eagle, the white-headed eagle, and the sea eagles are characteristic examples. The white-tailed or sea eagles are absent only in South America."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Sea Eagle

"Eagle is a name given to many birds of prey in the family Falconidæ. The golden eagle, the white-headed…

"The Eagle is an emblem in heraldry, war, and legend. The eagle, borne upon a spear, was used by the Persians as a standard in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401. The Romans used eagles of silver, or more rarely of gold, carried in the same way as standards. The Napoleon dynasty of France also adopted the eagle as their symbol. A double-headed eagle is the emblem of Russia, Austria, and Prussia."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

German Eagle

"The Eagle is an emblem in heraldry, war, and legend. The eagle, borne upon a spear, was used by the…

"The Eagle is an emblem in heraldry, war, and legend. The eagle, borne upon a spear, was used by the Persians as a standard in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401. The Romans used eagles of silver, or more rarely of gold, carried in the same way as standards. The Napoleon dynasty of France also adopted the eagle as their symbol. A double-headed eagle is the emblem of Russia, Austria, and Prussia."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

French Eagle

"The Eagle is an emblem in heraldry, war, and legend. The eagle, borne upon a spear, was used by the…

"The Eagle is a gold coin of the United States, value $10; half-eagle, $5; quarter-eagle, $2.50, double eagle, the largest gold coin of this country, $20."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Eagle on Seal of United States

"The Eagle is a gold coin of the United States, value $10; half-eagle, $5; quarter-eagle, $2.50, double…

"The Erne is one of the 'bare-legged' eagles. The genus includes some seven species, represented apparently in all parts of the world except South America. A notable species is the white-headed or bald eagle, the emblem of the United States. This erne is common in North America, both by the coasts and by inland lakes, and also occurs in Northern Europe. The general color is brown, but the head and neck of the adults are milky-white, and the same is true of the rounded tail."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Erne

"The Erne is one of the 'bare-legged' eagles. The genus includes some seven species, represented apparently…

"A Frieze, in architecture, is that portion of the entablature which is between the architrave and the cornice. It was generally adorned with triglyphs in the Doric order. The term frieze was also applied to a broad band of sculpture, in low relief, that was frequently placed round the cella of a Grecian temple, immediately under the ceiling of the portico, and completely surrounding the exterior."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Roman-Doric Frieze

"A Frieze, in architecture, is that portion of the entablature which is between the architrave and the…

"A Frieze, in architecture, is that portion of the entablature which is between the architrave and the cornice. It was generally adorned with triglyphs in the Doric order. The term frieze was also applied to a broad band of sculpture, in low relief, that was frequently placed round the cella of a Grecian temple, immediately under the ceiling of the portico, and completely surrounding the exterior."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Roman-Doric Frieze

"A Frieze, in architecture, is that portion of the entablature which is between the architrave and the…

"The Osprey, the fish hawk, bald buzzard, or fishing eagle. A bird of prey, of almost world wide distribution usually near the seashore, and, unlike rapacious birds generally, are in some measure gregarious. In North America large communities of ospreys are found, and the purple grakle often builds close by. The osprey lays three or four eggs of a rich red to buffy white, with large reddish and brown markings."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Osprey

"The Osprey, the fish hawk, bald buzzard, or fishing eagle. A bird of prey, of almost world wide distribution…

"The Ostrich is the largest of all living birds, standing from six to eight feet in height, and has been known from remote antiquity; Xenophon mentions it in the "Anabasis" as found in the plains of Artemisia, and there are frequent references to it in later Roman literature. Hunters report that the flesh is palatable. The ostrich is hunted and bred for the sake of the quill feathers of the wings and tail.The Ostrich is a vegetable feeder, but swallows stones, bits of iron, and other hard substances to aid the gizzard in its functions. On ostrich farms newly hatched birds have been observed to pick up little stones before taking any food. The wings are useless for flight, but of so much assistance in running that the bird can outstrip the fleetest horse."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Ostrich

"The Ostrich is the largest of all living birds, standing from six to eight feet in height, and has…

A cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, and thus opposed to the toga, the garb of peace. The abolla was used by by the lower classes at Rome, and consequently by the philosophers who affected severity of manners and life.

Abolla

A cloak chiefly worn by soldiers, and thus opposed to the toga, the garb of peace. The abolla was used…

"The act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in later times, to recline at their meals; but this practice could not have been od great antiquity in Greece, since Homer always describes persons as sitting at their meals; and Isidore of Seville, an ancient grammarian, also attributes the same custom to the ancient Romans. Even in the time of the early Roman emperors, children in families of the highest rank used to sit together, while their fathers and elders reclined on couches at the upper part of the room. Roman ladies continued the practice of sitting at table, even after the recumbent position had become common with the other sex. It appears to have been considered more decent, and more agreeable to the severity and purity of ancient manners for women to sit, more especially if many persons were present. But, on the other hand, we find cases of women reclining, where there was conceived to be nothing bold or indelicate in their posture. Such is the case in the following woodcut, which seems intended to represent a scene of matrimonial felicity. The husband and wife recline on a sofa; their two sons are in front of them; and several females and a boy are performing a piece of music for the entertainment of the married pair." — Smith, 1873

Accubatio

"The act of reclining at meals. The Greeks and Romans were accustomed, in later times, to recline at…

"Pasiflora is the passion-flower. Generally climbing herbs or shrubs. Fruit succulent, seeds many. Found chiefly in tropical America. The three stigmas seemed to the devout Roman Catholics of South America to represent nails; one transfixing each hand, and one the feet of the crucified Saviour; the five anthers, His five wounds; the rays of the corona, His crown of thorns, or the halo of glory around His head; the digitate leaves, the hands of those who scourged Him; the tendrils, the scourge itself; while, finally, the 10 parts of the perianth were the 10 apostles– that is, the 12 wanting Judas who betrayed, and Peter who denied, his Lord."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Passion Flower

"Pasiflora is the passion-flower. Generally climbing herbs or shrubs. Fruit succulent, seeds many. Found…

"The Pastoral Staff is, in the Roman Catholic Church, the official staff of a bishop or abbot. The pastoral staff of an archbishop is distinguished by being surmounted by a crozier."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Pastoral Staff

"The Pastoral Staff is, in the Roman Catholic Church, the official staff of a bishop or abbot. The pastoral…

"A Persian sword, whence Horace speaks of the <em>Medus acinaces.</em> The acinaces was a short and straight weapon; and thus differed from the Roman <em>sica,</em> which was curved. It was worn on the right side of the body, whereas the Greeks and Romans usually had their swords suspended on the left side. The form of the acinaces, with the mode of wearing it, is illustrated by the by the following Persepolitan figures." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Acinaces

"A Persian sword, whence Horace speaks of the Medus acinaces. The acinaces was a short and…

"Flavius Josephus was a strange amalgamation of Jew, Greek, and Roman, admittedly not what he should have been, either as a teacher of Mosiac law, as a patriot, or as a public man; and yet he performed successfully what he could not have achieved had he been any one of these only." &mdash; The Delphian Society, 1913

Flavius Josephus

"Flavius Josephus was a strange amalgamation of Jew, Greek, and Roman, admittedly not what he should…

Coin of the old Roman Empire.

Ancient Roman coin

Coin of the old Roman Empire.

"Plutarch, as the great interpreter of Greece and Rome, exerted on generations succeeding him in influence perhaps greater than any other classical writer." &mdash; The Delphian Society, 1913

Plutarch

"Plutarch, as the great interpreter of Greece and Rome, exerted on generations succeeding him in influence…

"A vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey. The following cut represents amphorae in the British Museum. They are of variouss forms and sizes; in general they are tall and narrow, with a small neck, and a handle on each side of the neck, and terminating at the bottom in a point, which was let into a stand or stuck in the ground, so that the vessel stood upright: several amphorae have been found in this position in the cellars at Pompeii. Amphorae were commonly made of earthenware. Homer mentions amphorae of gold and stone, and the Egyptians had them of brass; glass vessels of this form have been found at Pompeii. The most common use of the amphora, both amoung the Greeks and the Romans, was for keeping wine. The cork was covered with pitch or gypsum, and on the outside the title of the wine was painted, the date of the vintage being marked by the names of the consuls then in office; or, when the jars were of glass, little tickets were suspended from them, indicating these particulars." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Amphorae

"A vessel used for holding wine, oil, honey. The following cut represents amphorae in the British Museum.…

An eagle doodad.

Eagle doodad

An eagle doodad.

"Ancilia carried by Salii. The sacred shield carried by the Salii, and made of bronze. The original ancile was found, according to tradition, in the palace of Numa; and, as no numan hand has brought it there, it was concluded that it had been sent from heaven. At the same time, the haruspices declared that the Roman state would endure so long as this shield remained in Rome. To secure its preservation in the city, Numa ordered eleven other shields, exactly like it, to be made by the armourer, Mamurius Veturius, and twelve ancilia. They were kept in the temple of that divinity, on the Palatine mount, and were taken from it only once a year, on the calends of March. The feast of the god was then observed during several daysl when the Salaii carried their shields about the city, singing songs in praise of Mars, Numa, and Mamurius Veturius, and at the same time performing a dance, which probably in some degree resembled our morris with rods, so as to keep time with their voices, and with the movements of their dance. The preceding cut shows one of these rods, as represented on the tomb of pontifex salius, or chief of the Salii" &mdash; Smith, 1873

Ancile

"Ancilia carried by Salii. The sacred shield carried by the Salii, and made of bronze. The original…

"Marcus Aurelius Antoninus stands almost alone in the history of the world as a philosopher and philanthopist clothed in royal purple. He was born A.D. 121, adopted by Antoninus Pius in 138, became consul in 140, and succeeded his adoptive father as emperor in 161." &mdash; The Delphian Society, 1913

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

"Marcus Aurelius Antoninus stands almost alone in the history of the world as a philosopher and philanthopist…

"Constantine, the first Christian emperor, removed the capital of the world-empire from Rome to Byzantium, henceforth to be called Constantinople. Though the court, with all its splendor and power, was thus transferred to a city where Greek was the vernacular, the change did not retard, but rather hastened, the decline of literature." &mdash; The Delphian Society, 1913

Byzantine court

"Constantine, the first Christian emperor, removed the capital of the world-empire from Rome to Byzantium,…

"Thus the prince, both when present and when coming, was alike victorius: and these things he achieved just starting up from amidst his books; or rather, in marching against the adversary, he marched with his books, for he had always in his hands either books or arms, believing that war was wonderfully assisted by philosophy, and that a prince competent to give counsel threw more weight into the scale than a fighting one." &mdash; The Delphian Society, 1913

Julian

"Thus the prince, both when present and when coming, was alike victorius: and these things he achieved…

"Antefixa representing Minerva superintending the construction of the Ship Argo. Antefixa are terra-cottas, which exhibited various ornamental designs, and were used in architecture to cover the frieze of the entablature. These terra-cottas do not appear to have been used among the Greeks, but were probabl Etruscan in their origin, and were thence taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. The name antefixa is evidently derived from the circumstance that they were fixed before the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor, complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments of this description, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the British Museum, which were discovered at Rome." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Antefixa

"Antefixa representing Minerva superintending the construction of the Ship Argo. Antefixa are terra-cottas,…

"The two imperfect antefixa, are amoung those found at Velletri, and described by Carloni. Antefixa are terra-cottas, which exhibited various ornamental designs, and were used in architecture to cover the frieze of the entablature. These terra-cottas do not appear to have been used among the Greeks, but were probabl Etruscan in their origin, and were thence taken for the decoration of Roman buildings. The name antefixa is evidently derived from the circumstance that they were fixed before the buildings which they adorned. Cato, the censor, complained that the Romans of his time began to despise ornaments of this description, and to prefer the marble friezes of Athens and Corinth. The rising taste which Cato deplored may account for the superior beauty of the antefixa preserved in the British Museum, which were discovered at Rome." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Antefixa

"The two imperfect antefixa, are amoung those found at Velletri, and described by Carloni. Antefixa…

"The bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather than of Europe. In the Roman armies it was scarcely ever employed except by auxiliaries; and these auxiliaries, called sagittarii, were chiefly Cretans and Arabians. This image shows the Scythian or Parthian bow unstrung." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Arcus

"The bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic…

"The bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather than of Europe. In the Roman armies it was scarcely ever employed except by auxiliaries; and these auxiliaries, called sagittarii, were chiefly Cretans and Arabians. This image shows the usual form of the Grecian bow, which had a double curvature, consisting of two circular portions united by the handle. When not used the bow was put into a case which was made of leather, and sometimes ornamented." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Arcus

"The bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic…

"The bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic of Asia rather than of Europe. In the Roman armies it was scarcely ever employed except by auxiliaries; and these auxiliaries, called sagittarii, were chiefly Cretans and Arabians. When not used the bow was put into a case which was made of leather, and sometimes ornamented. This image shows a drawing the bow." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Arcus

"The bow used for shooting arrows, is one of the most ancient of all weapons, but is characteristic…

"The unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was made of copper, or of the mixed metal called Aes. It was originally of the weight of a pound of twelve ounces whence it was called as libralis and aes grave. The oldest form of the as is that which bears the figure of an animal. The next and most common form is that which has the two-faced head of Janus on one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression sed by Roman boys in tossing up)" &mdash; Smith, 1873

As

"The unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was made of copper, or of the mixed metal…

"The unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was made of copper, or of the mixed metal called Aes. It was originally of the weight of a pound of twelve ounces whence it was called as libralis and aes grave. The oldest form of the as is that which bears the figure of an animal. The next and most common form is that which has the two-faced head of Janus on one side, and the prow of a ship on the other (whence the expression sed by Roman boys in tossing up)" &mdash; Smith, 1873

As

"The unit of value in the Roman and old Italian coinages, was made of copper, or of the mixed metal…

"Trowsers, pantaloons, were common to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population, extending from the Indian to the Atlantic ocean, but were not worn by the Greeks and Romans themselves. Accordingly the monuments containing representations of people different from the Greeks and romans exhibit them in trowsers, thus distinguishing them from the latter people. An example is seen in the preceding group of Sarmatians." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Bracae

"Trowsers, pantaloons, were common to all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman population,…

"A shoe or boot, anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use of shoes was by no means universal amount the Greeks and Romans. The Homeric heroes are represented without shoes when armed for battle. Socrates, Phocion, and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Roman slaves had no shoes. the covering of the feet was removed before reclining at meals. People in grief, as for instance at funerals, frequently went barefooted. Shoes may be divided into those in which the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the sole of the foot by ties or bands, or by a covering for the toes or the instep; and those which ascended hgher and higher, according as they covered the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the leg. To calceamenta of the latter kind, i.e. to shoes and boots, as distinguished from sandals and slippers, the term calceus was applied in its proper and restricted sense." &mdash; Smith, 1873; This image shows Calcei, Women's Shoes.

Calceus

"A shoe or boot, anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use of shoes was by…

"A shoe or boot, anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use of shoes was by no means universal amount the Greeks and Romans. The Homeric heroes are represented without shoes when armed for battle. Socrates, Phocion, and Cato, frequently went barefoot. The Roman slaves had no shoes. the covering of the feet was removed before reclining at meals. People in grief, as for instance at funerals, frequently went barefooted. Shoes may be divided into those in which the mere sole of a shoe was attached to the sole of the foot by ties or bands, or by a covering for the toes or the instep; and those which ascended hgher and higher, according as they covered the ankles, the calf, or the whole of the leg. To calceamenta of the latter kind, i.e. to shoes and boots, as distinguished from sandals and slippers, the term calceus was applied in its proper and restricted sense." &mdash; Smith, 1873; This image shows Calceus, Men's Shoes.

Calceus

"A shoe or boot, anything adapted to cover and preserve the feet in walking. The use of shoes was by…

"Sarcophagus, plural Sarcophagi, is a kind of stone used among the Greeks for making coffins, and so called because it was believed to have the property of consuming the flesh of dead bodies deposited in it within a few weeks. Hence a coffin or tomb of stone; a kind of stone chest used for containing a dead body. In modern times stone coffins are occasionally used for royal or distinguished persons."—(Charles Leonard-Stuart, 1911)

Sarcophagus of Scipio

"Sarcophagus, plural Sarcophagi, is a kind of stone used among the Greeks for making coffins, and so…

Janus, the Roman god, seated.

Janus

Janus, the Roman god, seated.

An old Roman plow.

Roman plow

An old Roman plow.

The Palladium, an ancient statue.

The Palladium

The Palladium, an ancient statue.

"Elated by the victory, the Romans now determined to drive Carthage out of the island altogether. This, however, could not be accomplished without a fleet. Such ships as Rome possessed were old and out of date, and a wrecked Carthaginian galley was taken as a model for the new fleet." &mdash; The Delphian Society, 1913

Roman galley

"Elated by the victory, the Romans now determined to drive Carthage out of the island altogether. This,…

A Roman aqudect.

Roman aqueduct

A Roman aqudect.

A hinge or pivot. The first figure, in the annexed woodcut, is designed to show the general form of a door, as we find it with a pivot at the top and bottom in ancient remains of stone, marble, wood, and bronze. The second figure represents a bronze hinge in the Egyptian collection of the British Museum: its pivot is exactly cylindrical. Under these is drawn the threshhold of a temple, or other large edifice, with the plan of the folding-doors. The pivots move in holes fitted to receive them, each of which is in an angle behind the antepagmentum. The Greeks and Romans also used hinges exactly like those now in common use. Four Roman hinges of bronze, preserved in the British Museum, are shown in the following woodcut.

Cardo

A hinge or pivot. The first figure, in the annexed woodcut, is designed to show the general form of…

"A cart; also a two-wheeled carriage enclosed, and with an arched or sloping cover overhead. The carpentum was used to convey the Roman matrons in the public festal processions; and, as this was a high distinction, the privilege of riding in a carpentum on such occasions was allowed to particular females by special grant of the senate. This carriage contained seats for two, and sometimes for three persons, besides the coachman. It was commonly drawn by a pair of mules, but more rarely by oxen or horses, and sometimes by four horses like a quadriga. Carpenta, or covered carts, were much used by the Britons, the Gauls, and other northern nations. These, together with the carts of the more common form, including baggage waggons, appear to have been comprehended under the term carri, or carra, which is the Celtic name with a Latin termination. The Guals took a great multitude of them on their military expeditions, and when they were uncamped, arranged them in close oder, so as to form extensive lines of circumvallation." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Carpentum

"A cart; also a two-wheeled carriage enclosed, and with an arched or sloping cover overhead. The carpentum…

"A light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two persons rapidly from place to place. The cisia were quickly drawn by mules. Cicero mentions the case of a messenger who travelled 56 miles in 10 hours in such vehicles, which were kept for hire at the stations along the great roads; a proof that the ancients considered six Roman miles per hour as an extraordinary speed." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Cisium

"A light open carriage with two wheels, adapted to carry two persons rapidly from place to place. The…

"The large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally of the circular form, and is said to have been first used by Proetus and Acrisius or Argos, and therefore is called clipeus Argolicus, and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is often represented in Roman sculpture of an oblong oval, which makes the distinction between the common buckler and that of Argos." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Clipeus

"The large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally of the circular form, and is said…

"The large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally of the circular form, and is said to have been first used by Proetus and Acrisius or Argos, and therefore is called clipeus Argolicus, and likened to the sun. But the clipeus is often represented in Roman sculpture of an oblong oval, which makes the distinction between the common buckler and that of Argos." &mdash; Smith, 1873

Clipeus

"The large shield worn by the Greeks and Romans, which was originally of the circular form, and is said…