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Posterior view of a left femur of a horse. Labels: 1, head; 2, trochanter major; 3, trochanter minor; 4, trochanter internus; 5, notch for the round ligament; 6, trochanteric fossa; 7, 8, places for attachment for the laterla ligaments; 11, the condlyes, separated by the intercondyloid groove; 10, supracondyloid fossae.

Femur of a Horse

Posterior view of a left femur of a horse. Labels: 1, head; 2, trochanter major; 3, trochanter minor;…

External view of bones of left tarsus, metatarsus, and digit of a horse. Labels: 1, distal end of tibia; 2, calcaneum; 3, astragalus; 4, cuboid; 5, cuneiforme magnum; 6, cuneiforme medium; 7, great metatarsal; 8, external small metatarsal (splint); 9, proximal phalanx; 10, sesamoids; 11, median phalanx; 12, distal phlanx; 14, third sesamoid; 15, basilar process.

Horse Leg

External view of bones of left tarsus, metatarsus, and digit of a horse. Labels: 1, distal end of tibia;…

Posterior view of left metatarsus of a horse. 1, Large metatarsal bone; 2, Internal small metatarsal bone; 3, external, small metatarsal bone; 4, partial origin of suspensory and check ligaments; 5, nutrient foramen; 6, articular ridge joining the condyles.

Metatarsus of a Horse

Posterior view of left metatarsus of a horse. 1, Large metatarsal bone; 2, Internal small metatarsal…

The skeleton of an ox. Axial Skeleton. The skull. Cranial Bones- occipital, 1: b, parietal, 2; a, frontal, 2; c, temporal, 2; sphenoid, 1; ethmoid, 1; auditory ossicles, 8. Facial Bones- h, nasal, 2; e, lachrymal, 2; d, malar, 2; f, maxilla, 2; g, premaxilla, 1; i, inferior maxilla, 2; palatine, 2; pterygoid, 2; vomer, 1; turbinals, 4; hyoid series, 7. Teeth: incisors, 6; canines, 2; molars, 24. The trunk- k, cervical vertebrae, 7; l, dorsal vertebrae, 13; m, lumbar vertebrae, 6; n, sacrum ( five segments), 1; o, coccygal vertebrae (variable), 20; p, ribs, 26; * sternum (seven sternebrae), 1. Appendicular skeleton. Pectoral limb. t, scapula, 2; u, humerus, 2; v, radius, 2; w, ulna, 2. Carpus- x, trapezium, 2; y, cuneiform, 2; z, lunar; a', scaphoid, 2; b', unciform, 2; c', magnum, 2. Metacarpus: d', large bone, 2; e', small bone, 4; f', large sesamoids, 8. Digit- g', proximal phalanges, 4; h', median phalages, 4; i', distal phalanges, 4; k', small sesamoids, 4. Pelvic Limb. Pelvis- q, ilium, 2; s, ischium, 2; r, pubis, 2. The limb- l', femur, 2; m', patella, 2; n', tibia, 2. Tarsus-o', maleolar, 2; p', calcaneum, 2; q', astragalus, 2; r', cubocuneiform, 2; s', cuneiforme medium, 2; t', cuneiforme parvum, 2. Metatarsus: large bone, 2; u', small bone, 2. Large sesamoids, 8. Digit: proximal phalanges, 4; median phalanges, 4; distal phalanges, 4; small sesamoids, 4. Visceral skeleton. Bones of the heart, 2. The separate bones of the ruminant skeleton, as here considered are 251.

Ox Skeleton

The skeleton of an ox. Axial Skeleton. The skull. Cranial Bones- occipital, 1: b, parietal, 2; a, frontal,…

Right cardiac bone of an ox. Labels: a, anterior angle; b, posterior angles; c, superior border; d, anterior border; e, posterior border; f, right surface.

Cardiac Bone of an Ox

Right cardiac bone of an ox. Labels: a, anterior angle; b, posterior angles; c, superior border; d,…

The skeleton of a bird. Labels: a, radius and ulna; b, dorsal vertebrae; c, sacrum and pelvis; g, ploughshare bone; h, tibia; i, metatarsus; d, furculum; e, carina of the sternum; f, distal phalanx of pectoral limb.

Skeleton of a Bird

The skeleton of a bird. Labels: a, radius and ulna; b, dorsal vertebrae; c, sacrum and pelvis; g, ploughshare…

The skull of a bird. Labels: a, inferior aspect, the mandible being removed; b, lateral aspect; px, premaxilla; mx, superior maxilla; p, palatine bone; v, vomer; j, jugal bone; qj, quadrato-jugal bone; lachrymal; me, median ethmoid; f, frontal; pf, post-frontal process; p, parietal; pt, pterygoid; q, os quadratum; sq, sqamosal; eu, process before the sustachian aperture; bo, basi-occipital, and so, supra-occipital bone; ar, articular; a, surangular, and d, dentary portion of the mandible.

Skull of a Bird

The skull of a bird. Labels: a, inferior aspect, the mandible being removed; b, lateral aspect; px,…

The pectoral arch of a bird. Labels: sc, scapula; co, coracoid bone; f, clavicle, terminating below in the hypocleideum; gl, glenoid cavity.

Pectoral Arch of a Bird

The pectoral arch of a bird. Labels: sc, scapula; co, coracoid bone; f, clavicle, terminating below…

Longitudinal section through the digit of a horse. Labels: 1, skin; 2, extensor pedis tendon; 3, synovial capsule of patern joint; 4, metacarpus; 5, perforatus tendon; 6 (omitted in cut), perforans tendon; 7, synovial sheath; 8, projecting synovial cul-de-sac; 9, inner aspect of sesamoid bone; 10, the fetlock; 11, the y-ligament; 12, the v-ligament; 12, proximal phalanx; 14, terminal portion of extensor tendon; 15, median phalanx; 16, third sesamoid or navicular bone; 17, the sensitive frog; 18, distal phalanx; 19, the hoof; 20, sensitive laminae.

Section Through the Horse Leg and Hoof

Longitudinal section through the digit of a horse. Labels: 1, skin; 2, extensor pedis tendon; 3, synovial…

Anterior tibial group of muscles of the right limb, seen from before and the outside. Labels: a, flexor metatarsi; a', tendonto the cuboid; and a", temdom to the metatarsus, from its funicular portion; a"', tendon of its fleshy portion, sending a straight slip to the metatarsus, and an oblique one to the cuneiform bone; b, extensor pedis; b', its tendon; c, peroneus; c', point where its tendon joins that of the extensor pedis; d, extensor pedis brevis; e, superior, and f, inferior thick portions of the annular ligament.

Horse Leg Muscles

Anterior tibial group of muscles of the right limb, seen from before and the outside. Labels: a, flexor…

"In 1872 Penaud discarded the rigid screws in favour of elastic ones...Penaud also india-rbber under torsion for the whale-bone and clock springs of the smaller model is remarkable for its lightness, simplicity and power." -Britannica, 1910

Screw-Model

"In 1872 Penaud discarded the rigid screws in favour of elastic ones...Penaud also india-rbber under…

Oshyiodes of an adult fowl.

Oshyiodes of Adult Fowl

Oshyiodes of an adult fowl.

The sacrum of a young fowl; natural size seen from below.

Fowl Sacrum

The sacrum of a young fowl; natural size seen from below.

The sternum of a chick three days old.

Chick Sternum

The sternum of a chick three days old.

"Human Thoracic Duct and Azygous Veins. a, receptacle of the chyle; b, trunk of the thoracic duct, opening at c into root of left innominate vein at junction of f, left jugular, and g, left subclavian vein; e, right innominate vein; d, d, d, several thoracic and lumbar lymphatic glands; h, h, a short portion of the esophagus. Two azygous veins run parallel with and on each side of the duct, until the left crosses behind the duct to join the right. The structures represented rest nearly upon the back-bone." -Whitney, 1911

Thoracic Duct

"Human Thoracic Duct and Azygous Veins. a, receptacle of the chyle; b, trunk of the thoracic duct, opening…

"Right Femur of a Youth. E, E, epiphyses; gtr, ltr, greater and lesser trochanter; h, head; et, it, external and internal tuberosity; ec, ic, external and internal condyle; n, neck." -Whitney, 1911

Youth Femur

"Right Femur of a Youth. E, E, epiphyses; gtr, ltr, greater and lesser trochanter; h, head; et, it,…

"Skeleton of Horse (Equus caballus). fr, frontal bone; C, cervical vertebrae; D, dorsal vertebrae; L, lumbar vertebrae; cd, caudal vertebrae; sc, scapula; pe, pelvis; ma, mandible; hu, humerus; ra, radius; cp, carpus; mc, metacarpus; fe, femur; tib, tibia; ca, calcaneum; tar, tarsus; mt, metatarsus; p, phalanges." -Whitney, 1911

Horse Skeleton

"Skeleton of Horse (Equus caballus). fr, frontal bone; C, cervical vertebrae; D, dorsal vertebrae; L,…

Cuttlefish "bone" or internal shell. The fine point at the base structure represents the guard of the Belemnite.

Cuttlebone

Cuttlefish "bone" or internal shell. The fine point at the base structure represents the guard of the…

"Anterior View of Human Right Femur. ec, external condyle; etu, external tuberosity; ic, internal condyle; itu, internal tuberosity; ltr, lesser trochanter; gtr, great trochanter; h, head; n, neck." -Whitney, 1911

Anterior View of Human Right Femur

"Anterior View of Human Right Femur. ec, external condyle; etu, external tuberosity; ic, internal condyle;…

"Posterior View of Left Femur of a Horse. h, head; gtr, great trochanter; ttr, third trochanter; ltr, lesser trochanter; p, pit for round ligament; itf, intertrochanteric fossa; d, a depression or fossa; etu, itu, external and internal tuberosities; cc, the two condyles." -Whitney, 1911

Posterior View of Left Femur of Horse

"Posterior View of Left Femur of a Horse. h, head; gtr, great trochanter; ttr, third trochanter; ltr,…

"Skeleton of Fish (Perch). a, intermaxillaries; b, nasal region; c, dentary bone of mandible; d, orbit of eye; e, supraoccipital crest; f, preoperculum; g, g', vertebral column; h, pectoral fin; i, ventral fin; k, first dorsal fin; l, second dorsal fin; m, anal fin; n, n, caudal fin, making a homocercal tail." -Whitney, 1911

Skeleton of Perch

"Skeleton of Fish (Perch). a, intermaxillaries; b, nasal region; c, dentary bone of mandible; d, orbit…

"A, Furcula or Merry-thought of a Domestic Fowl. ... h, hypoclidium." -Whitney, 1911

Furcula

"A, Furcula or Merry-thought of a Domestic Fowl. ... h, hypoclidium." -Whitney, 1911

"Typical Skull of Common Fowl (Galliformes). A, side view: sa, surangular bone of mandible; ar, articular of mandible; d, dentary; f, frontal; j, jugal; l, lacrymal; me, mesethmoid; mx, maxillary; p, parietal; pf, postfrontal process; pt, pterygoid; px, premaxillary; q, quadrate; qj, quadratojugal; sq, squamosal; v, vomer." -Whitney, 1911

Skull of Common Fowl

"Typical Skull of Common Fowl (Galliformes). A, side view: sa, surangular bone of mandible; ar, articular…

"Typical Skull of Common Fowl (Galliformes). B, vertical longitudinal section: sa, surangular bone of mandible; ar, articular of mandible; d, dentary; f, frontal; me, mesethmoid; p, parietal; pf, postfrontal process; px, premaxillary; sq, squamosal; v, vomer; as, alisphenoid; bo, basioccipital; so, supraoccipital; os, orbitosphenoid; p', prootic; pf, pituitary fossa; sp, splenial bone." -Whitney, 1911

Skull of Common Fowl

"Typical Skull of Common Fowl (Galliformes). B, vertical longitudinal section: sa, surangular bone of…

"Hesperornis regalis, (a fossilized restoration) which stood about three feet high, had blunt teeth in the grooves of both maxilla and mandible, the number being thirty or more below, but considerably less above, where they did not reach to the exterior extremity. The bill was long and pointed, the rami of the lower jaw being entirely separate; the head was rather small, the neck long, and the quadrate bone articulated with the skull by one knob only. The sternum was long, broad, and flat, without keel; the furcula was decidedly reduced, the metatarsus, being little more than a humerus; the tail was fairly long and broad, but had no pygostyle." A. H. Evans, 1900

The Restoration of the Hesperornis Regalis

"Hesperornis regalis, (a fossilized restoration) which stood about three feet high, had blunt teeth…

"Hesperornis regalis, (a fossilized restoration) which stood about three feet high, had blunt teeth in the grooves of both maxilla and mandible, the number being thirty or more below, but considerably less above, where they did not reach to the exterior extremity. The bill was long and pointed, the rami of the lower jaw being entirely separate; the head was rather small, the neck long, and the quadrate bone articulated with the skull by one knob only. The sternum was long, broad, and flat, without keel; the furcula was decidedly reduced, the metatarsus, being little more than a humerus; the tail was fairly long and broad, but had no pygostyle." A. H. Evans, 1900

Restoration of Hesperornis regalis

"Hesperornis regalis, (a fossilized restoration) which stood about three feet high, had blunt teeth…

"Chondrocranium of Frog (Rana esculenta). y, girdle-bone or os en ceinture; EO, exoccipital; PrO, proötic; QJ, quadratojugal." -Whitney, 1911

Frog Chondrocranium

"Chondrocranium of Frog (Rana esculenta). y, girdle-bone or os en ceinture; EO, exoccipital; PrO, proötic;…

"Fig 27. - Bones of the right wing of a duck, Clangula islandica, A, shoulder, omos; B, elbow, ancon; C, wrist, carpus; D, end of principal finger; E, end of hand proper, metacarpus. AB, upper arm, brachium; BC, fore-arm, antibrachium; CD, whole hand or pinion, manus; composed of CE, hand proper or metacarpus, excepting d2; ED, or d2, d3, d4, fingers, digits, digiti, h, humerus; rd, radius; ul, ulna; sc, outer carpal, scapholunare or radiale; cu, inner carpal, cuneiforme or ulnare; these two composing wrist or carpus. mc, the compound hand-bone or metcarpus, composed of three metacarpal bones, bearing as many digits - the outer digit seated upon a protuberance at the head of the metacarpal, the other two situated at the end of the bone. d2, the outer or radial digit, commonly called the thumb or pollex, composed or two phalanges; d3, the middle digit, of two phalanges; d4, the inner or ulnar digit, of one phalanx d2 is the seat of the feathers of the bastard wing or alula. D to C (whole pinion), seat of the flight feathers called primaries; C to B (fore-arm), seat of the secondaries; at B and above it in direction of A, seat of tertiaries proper; below A, in direction of B, seat of scapularies (upon pteryla humeralis), often called tertiaries. The wing shown half-spread: complete extension would bring A B C D into a right line; in complete folding C goes to A, and D to B; all these motions nearly in the plane of the paper. The elbow-joint and wrist are such perfect hinges, that, in opening or closing the wing, C cannot sink below the paper, nor D fly up above the paper, as would otherwise be the effect of the pressure of the air upon the flight-feathers. Observe also rd and ul are two rods connecting B and C; the construction of their joining at B and C, and with each other, is such, that they can slide lengthwise a little upon each other. Now when the point C, revolving about B, approaches A in the arc of a circle, rd pushes on sc, while ul pulls back cu; the motion is transmitted to D, and makes this point approach B. conversely, in opening the wing, rd pulls back sc, and ul pushes on cu, making D recede from B. In other words, the angle A B C cannot be increased or diminished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle B C D; so that no part of the wing can be opened or shut without automatically opening or shutting the rest..." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Bones of the Right Wing of a Duck

"Fig 27. - Bones of the right wing of a duck, Clangula islandica, A, shoulder, omos; B, elbow, ancon;…

"Fig. 29., from a young grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus, six months old), is designed to show the composition of the carpus and metacarpus before the elements of these bones fuse together: r, radius; u, ulna; s, scapholunar or radiale; c, cuneiform or ulnare; om, a carpal bone believed to be os magnum, later fusing with the metacarpus; z, a carpal bone, supposed to be unciform, later fusing with metacarpus; 8, an unidentified fifth carpal bone, which may be called pentosteon, later fusing with the metacarpus; 7, radial or outer metacarpal bone, bearing the pollex or outer digit, consisting of two phalanges, d and k; 9', principal (median) metacarpal bone, bearing the middle finger, consisting of the two phalanges, d', d"; 9, inner or ulnar metacarpal, bearing a digit of one phalanx, d'". The pieces marked om, z, 7, 8, 9,. all fuse with 9'. (From nature by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A.)."Elliot Coues, 1884

The Wing Bones of a Young Grouse

"Fig. 29., from a young grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus, six months old), is designed to show the…

"Fig 34 - Bones of a bird's hind limb: from a duck, Clangula islandica. A, hip: B, knee: C, heel or ankle-joint; D, bases of toes. A to B, thigh or "second joint"; B to C, crus, leg proper, "drumstick," often wrongly called "thigh"; C to D, metatarsus, foot proper, corresponding to instep, or foot from ankle to bases of toes; in descriptive ornithology the tarsus; often called "shank" From D outward are the toes or digits. fm. femur; tb, tibia, principal (inner) bone of leg; fi, fibula, lesser (outer) bone of leg; mt, principal metatarsal bone, consisting chiefly of three fused metatarsal bones; am, accessory metatarsal, bearing 1t, first or hind toe, with two joints; 2t second toe, with three joints; 3t, third toe, with four joints; 4t, fourth toe, with five joints. At C there are in the embryo some small tarsal bones, not shown in the figure, uniting in part with the tibia, which is therefore a tibio-tarsus, in part with the metatarsus, which is therefore a tarso-metatarsus; the ankle-joint being therefore between two rows of tarsal bones, not, as it appears to be, directly between tibia and metatarsus." Elliot Coues, 1884

Bones of a Bird's Hind Limb

"Fig 34 - Bones of a bird's hind limb: from a duck, Clangula islandica. A, hip: B, knee: C, heel or…

"Right pectoral arch of a bird. s, scapula; c, coracoid; gl, glenoid, the cavity for head of humerus; cl, clavicle; hc, hypecleidium. In situ, the right end of the figure should tilt up a little. The pectoral arch is that bony structure by which the wings are borne upon the axial skeleton. It is to the fore limb what the pelvic arch is to the hind limb; but is disconnected from the back-bone and united with the breastbone, whereas the reverse arrangement obtains in the pelvic, which is fused with the sacral region of the spine. Each pectoral arch of birds consists (chiefly) of three bones: the scapula and coracoid, forming the shoulder-girdle proper, or scapular arch; and the accessory clavicles, or right and left half of the clavicular arch." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Right Pectoral Arch of a Bird

"Right pectoral arch of a bird. s, scapula; c, coracoid; gl, glenoid, the cavity for head of humerus;…

"Pelvis of a young grouse, showing three distinct bones. Il,P, ilium, ischium, pubis. In front of former a dorsal vertebra protrudes." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Pelvis of a Young Grouse

"Pelvis of a young grouse, showing three distinct bones. Il,P, ilium, ischium, pubis. In front of former…

"Fig. 62 Skull of common fowl, enlarged. from nature by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. The names of bones and some other parts are printed, requiring no explanation; but observe the following points: The distinction of none of the bones composing the brain-case (the upper back expanded part) can be found in a mature skull. The brain is contained between the occipital, sphenoidals, squamosals, parietals and part of frontal; the ethmoidals belong to the same group of cranial bones proper. All other bones, excepting the three otic ear-bones, are bones of the face and jaws. The lower jaw, of five bones, is drawn detached; it articulates by the black surface marked articular with the prominence just above- the quadratic bone. Observe that from this quadrate a series of bones quadrato-jugal, jugal, maxillary-makes a slender rod running to the premaxillary; this is the zygoma, or jugal bar. Observe from the quadrate also another series, composed of pterygoid and palatine bones, to the premaxillary; this is the pterygo-palatine bar; it slides along a median fixed axis of the skull, the rostrum, which bears the loose vomer at its end. The under mandible, quadrate, pterygoid, and vomer are the only movable bones of this skull. But when the quadrate rocks back and forth, as it does by its upper joint, its lower end pulls and pushes upon the upper mandible, by means of the jugal and pterygo-palatine bars, setting the whole scaffolding of the upper jaw in motion. This motion hinges upon the elasticity of the bones of the forehead, at the thin place just where the reference-lines from the words "lacrymal" and "mesethmoid" cross each other. The dark oval space behind the quadrate is the external orifice of the ear; the parts in it to which the three reference-lines go are diagrammatic, not actual representations; thus, the quadrate articulates with a large pro-otic as well as with the squamosal. The great excavation at the middle of the figure, containing the cirlet of the unshaded bones, is the left orbital cavity, orbit, or socket of the eye. The mesethmoid includes most of the background of this cavity, shaded diagonally. The upper one of the two processes of bone extending into it from behind is post-frontal or sphenotic process; the under one (just over the quadrate) is the squamosal process. A bone not shown, the presphenoid, lies just in front of the oval black space over the end of basisphenoid. This black oval is the optic foramen, through which the nerve of sight passes from the brain-cavity to the eye. The black dot a little behind the optic foramen is the orifice of exit of a part of the trifacial nerve. The black mark under the letters "on" of the word "frontal" is the olfactory foramen, where the nerve of smell emerges from the brain-box to go to the nose. The nasal cavity is the black space behind nasal and covered by that bone, and in the oval blank before it. The parts of the beak covered by horn are only premaxillary, nasal, and dentary. The condyle articulates with the first cervical vertebra; just above it, not shown, is the foramen magnum, or great hole through which the spinal medulla, or main nervous cord, passes from the spinal column. The basioccipital is hidden, excepting its condyle; so is much of the basisphenoid. The prolongation forward of the basisphenoid, marked "rostrum," and bearing the vomer at its end, is the parasphenoid, as far as its thickened under border is concerned. Between the fore end of the pterygoid and the basisphenoidal rostrum, is the site of the basipterygoid process, by which the bones concerned articulate by smooth facets; further forward, the palatines ride freely upon the parasphenoidal rostrum. In any passerine bird , the vomer would be thick in front, and forked behind, riding like the palatine upon the rostrum. The palatine seems to run into the maxillary in this view; but it continues on to premaxillary. The maxillo-palatine is an important bone which cannot be seen in the figure because it extends horizontally into the paper from the maxillary about where the reference life "maxillary" goes to that bone. The general line from the condyle to the end of the vomer is the cranial axis, basis cranii, or base of the cranium. This skull is widest across the post-frontal; next most so across the bulge of the jugal bar." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Common Fowl

"Fig. 62 Skull of common fowl, enlarged. from nature by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. The names of bones…

"Fig 63 - Skull of a duck (Clangula islandica), nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary bone; b, partly ossified internasal septum; b', pervious part of nostril; c, end of premaxillary, perforated form numerous branches of second division of the fifth cranial nerve; d, dentary bone of under mandible; e, groove of nerves, etc.; f, a vacuity between dentary and other pieces of the mandible; g, articular surface; h, recurved "angle of the jaw;" i, occipital protuberance; j, vacuity in supraoccipital bone; k, muscular impression on back of skull; l is over the black ear-cavity; m, post-frontal process; n, quadrate bone; o, pterygoid; p, palatine; q, quadrato-jugal; r, jugal; s, maxillary; t, fronto-parietal dome of the brain-cavity; u; u, the lacrymal bone, immense in a duck, nearly completing rim of the orbit by approaching m; v, vomer; w, supra-orbital depression for the nasal gland; x, cranio-facial hinge; y, optic foramen; z, etc. interorbital vacuities." Elliot Coues, 1884

Duck Skull

"Fig 63 - Skull of a duck (Clangula islandica), nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, premaxillary…

"Fig 72 - Hyoid bones of a goose, nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, cartilaginous end-piece of b, the great glosso-hyal, which has absorbed or replaced cerato-hyals or "lesser cornua"; c, basihyal, movably articulated with b, and combined completely with d, basibranchial, commonly called "urohyal;" e, ceratobranchial: f, epibranchial; e and f are together known as " thyrohayals," or "greater cornua." Elliot Coues, 1884

Goose Hyoid

"Fig 72 - Hyoid bones of a goose, nat. size; Dr. R.W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. a, cartilaginous end-piece of…

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating them is the centrum of any vertebra, bearing e, and epapophysis, and y, a hypapophysis; n, n, neurapophyses; d, d, diapophyses; ns, bifid neural spine; pl, pl, pleurapophyses; h, h, haemapophyses; hs, bifid haemal spine. Drawn by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, USA, After Owen. The Axial Skeleton of a bird or any vertebrated animal, that is, one having a back-bone, exhibits in cross-section two rings or hoops, one above and the other below a central point, like the upper and lower loops of a figure 8. The upper ring is the neural arch, so called because such cylinder encloses a section of the cerebro-spinal axis, or principal nervous system of a vertebrate (brain and spinal cord, whence arise all the nerves of the body, excepting those of the sympathetic nervous system). The lower ring is the haema arch, which similarly contains a section of the principal blood vessals and viscera.

Axial Skeleton

"Ideal plan of the double-ringed body of a vertebrate. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; the body separating…

"Fig 55. - Actual section of the body in the thoracic region of a bird. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal; c, centrum of a dorsal vertebra; hy, hypapophysis; d, diapophysis; z, zygapophysis; ns, neural spine; r, pleurapophysis, or vertebral part of a free rib, bearing u, uncinate process or epipleura; cr, haemapophyses; or sternal part of the same; st, section of the sternum or breast-bone (haemal spine). Designed by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, USA. This figure shows such a section, made across the thoracic or chest-region of the trunk. Here the upper ring (neural) is contracted, only surrounding the slender spinal cord, while the lower ring is expanded to enclose the heart and lungs." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Axial Skeleton

"Fig 55. - Actual section of the body in the thoracic region of a bird. N, neural canal; H, haemal canal;…

"Fig 64 - Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, x 9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof of the skull and the brain removed. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; c, notochord, running through the middle of the basilar plate or parachordal cartilage, in which are already visible the rudimentary ear-parts, cl, the cochlea, hsc, the horizontal semicircular canal; pts, the pituitary space, bounded by tr, the trabeculae, which come together before it to form the fronto-nasal plate, fn, in fig. 65; lg, lingula or bridge connecting trabeculae with parachordal cartilage; 5 notch afterward becoming foramen ovale for passage of parts of the fifth (trifacial) nerve; 9, foramen for hypoglossal nerve; q, separate cartilage forming the future quadrate bone." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Chick

"Fig 64 - Skull of chick, fifth day of incubation, x 9 diameters. Seen from above, the membranous roof…

"Skull of a chick, but seen from below. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; m, mouth; pts, pituitary space; fn, fronto-nasal plate; tr, ends of the trabeculae, free again after their union and bent strongly from the original axis of the trabeculae; n, external nostril; mxp, subocular bar of cartilage, or pterygo-palatine rod, to form pa, palatine, and pg, pterygoid bone, and other parts of the upper jaw, as the maxillary, jugal and quadrato-jugal; q, quadrate cartilage, same as seen in fig 64; mk, meckelian cartilage, to form lower jaw; these parts are in the first post-oral visceral arch; ch, cerato-hyal, and bh, basihyal, of second postoral arch; cbr, cerato-branchial, ebr-branchial, bbr, basi-branchial, of third post-oral arch; the parts of the second and third arch all going into the hyoid bone. 1, 2, 3, 1st, 2d, 3d, visceral clefts, whereof the 1st is to be modified into the ear-passages, and the others are to be obliterated." Elliot Coues, 1884

Skull of a Chick Below

"Skull of a chick, but seen from below. cv1, anterior cerebral vesicle; e, eye; m, mouth; pts, pituitary…

"Fig 66 - Head of a chick, second stage, after five days of incubation, section in profile; x6 diameters. cvl, cv2, cv3, first, second, and third cerebral vesicles; 1, place of the first nerve, the olfactory; 2, place of second nerve, the optic; ic, internal carotid artery, running into skull at what was originally the pituitary space, now an opening bounded in front by the anterior, acl, behind the posterior, pcl, clinoid walls; nc, notochord; oc, occipital condyle, thence to pcl being the original parachordal cartilage, here seen in profile; eo, exoccipital; eth, ethmoid, with ps, its presphenoid region posteriorly, and pn, pre-nasal part; this whole plate afterward developing into parts of the nose and the partition between the eyes; pa, palatine; pg, pterygoid region; pa and pg reference lines are in the chick's mouth; mk meckelian cartilage (lower jaw); ch and bh, ceratohyal and basihyal parts of the hyoid or tongue bone." Elliot Coues, 1884

Chick Head

"Fig 66 - Head of a chick, second stage, after five days of incubation, section in profile; x6 diameters.…

"The post-oral arches of the house martin, at middle of period of incubation, lateral view, X14 diameters. mk, stumpof meckelian or mandibular rod, its articular part, ar already shapen; q, quadrate bone, or suspensorium of lower jaw, with a free anterior orbital process and long posterior otic process articulating with the ear-capsule, of which teo, tympanic wing of occipital, is a part; mst, est, sst, ist, sth, parts of suspensorium of the third post-oral arch, not completed to chy; mst, medio-stapedial, tp come away from teo, bringing a piece with it, the true stapes or columella auris; the oval base of the stapes fitting into the future fenestra ovalis, or oval window looking into the cochlea; sst, supra-stapedial; est, extra-stapedial; ist, infra-stapedial, which will unite with sth, the stylo-hyal; chy and bhym cerato-hyal and basi-hyal, distal parts of the same arch; bbr, br 1, br2, basi-branchial, epi-branchial and cerato-branchial pieces of the third arch, composing the rest of the hyoid bone; tg, tongue." Elliot Coues, 1884

House Martin Skull

"The post-oral arches of the house martin, at middle of period of incubation, lateral view, X14 diameters.…

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running behind into the septum nasi; on each side of it the premaxillary, px, of which the (inner) palatal and (outer) dentary processes are seen (the upper nasal process hidden); mx, the maxillary, developing inner process, the maxillo-palatine, mxp; pa, the palatal, well-formed, articulating behind with rbs, the sphenoidal rostrum, its thickened under border, the parasphenoid; this will bear the vomer at its end when that bone is developed; j, jugal, joining mx and qj, the quadrato-jugal, joining j and q, the quadrate; mx to q, the jugal bar or zygoma; pg, the pterygoid, making with pa the pterygo-palatine bar, joining q and px; bt, the basitemporal, great mat of bone from ear to ear, underflooring the skull proper, as rbs, a similar formation, does further forward; ic, outer end of carotid canal, to run between the bt plate and true floor of skull, and enter brain cavity at original site of pituitary fossa; ty, tympanic cavity - external opening of ear; as, alisphenoid, bounding much of brain-box anteriorly, and orbital cavity posteriorly; psc, posterior semicircular canal of ear, in opisthotic bone, which will unite with the spreading eo, exoccipital, which will reach the cobdyle shown in the middle line, above the foramen magnum, fm, completed above by so, supra-occipital; 8, foramen lacerum posterius, exit of pneumogastric, glosso-pharyngeal and spinall accessory nerve; 9, exit of hypoglossal nerve, in basi-occipital." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Three

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Skull showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone; The style is somewhat tilted upward from its natural position." Elliot Coues, 1884

Cormorant Skull

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Skull showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone;…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible are seen: mk, remarks of meckelian rod; d, dentary bone; sp, splenial; a, angular; su, surangular; ar, articular; iap, internal articular process; pap, posterior articular process. In the skull: pn, the original prenasal cartilage, upon which is moulded the premaxillary, px, with its nasal process, npx, and dentary process, dpx; sn, septo-nasal cartilage, in which is seen nn, nasal nerve; ntb, nasal turbinal; the reference line crosses the cranio-facial suture, the face parts and cranial parts being nealry separated here by the nick seen in the original cartilaginous plate; eth, ethmoid; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, which will spread nearly throughout the dotted cartilaginous tract in which it lies, to form nearly all the interorbital septum; transverse thickening (in some birds) below the reference line eth will form the pre-frontal, or orbito-nasal septum; iof, inter-orbital foramen; ps, pre sphenoidal region, just above which is the orbito-sphenoidal region; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, with 5 foramen for division of the 5th (trifacial) nerve; f, frontal; sq, squamosal; p, parietal; so, superoccipital; asc, anterior semicircular canal; sc, a sinus (venous canal); ep, epiotic; eo, exoccipital; op, opisthotic; po, prootic, with 7 meatus auditorius internus, for entrance of 7th nerve; 8, foramen nfor vagus nerve; bo, basioccipital; bt, basitemporal; ic, canal (in original pituitary space; ) by which carotid artery enters brain activity; ap; basipterygoid process; ap to rbs, rostrum ofhte skull, being the parasphenoid bone underflooring the basisphenoid and future perpendicular plate of ethmoid." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary; aln, ali-nasal cartilage; en, septo-nasal; n, nasal bone; l, lacrymal; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, ps, prespeenoidal region; as, alisphenoid; f, frontal; p, parietal; sq, squamosal; so, superoccipital; eo, exoccipital; oc, occipital condyle; st, the cross-like object, the stapes, whose foot fits fenestra ovalis; q, quadrate; pg, pterygoid; qj, quadrato-jugal; jugal; pa, palatine; mx, maxillary. In the mandible: d, dentary; su, surangular; a, angular; ar, atricular; iap, internal angular process; pap, posterior angular process. 2, optic foramen; 5, foramen ovale, for inferior divisions of the 5th nerve." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull Profile

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary;…

"Saurognathous skull of a nesting Picus minor. x4 diameters, after Parker. Px premaxillary: dpx, its dentary process; ppx, palatal process; sn, septo-nasal; pa, palatine; pmx, peculiar palatal plate of maxillary of a woodpecker; nf, nasal turbinal; mx, maxillary; ipa, interpalatal spur of palatine bone; mxp, rudimentary maxillo-palatine, scarcely reaching palatine; smx, septo-maxillary, in several pieces; v, right vomer, its fellow opposite; pe, lower border of perpendicular plate of ethmoid, between vomers; epa, ethmoidal (inner) plate of palatine; mpa, medio-palatine; pg pterygoid; i, foramen for internal carotid; 8 for vagus nerve; 9, for hypo-glossal nerve." Elliot Coues, 1884

Woodpecker Skull

"Saurognathous skull of a nesting Picus minor. x4 diameters, after Parker. Px premaxillary: dpx, its…

"Aegithognathous skull of raven, Corvus corax, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A. Letters as before. N.B. The reference line, V, goes to the ossified nasal septum borne upon the end of the vomer, which latter bone begins at the thickest part of the central projection. Mxp underlies V and overlies Pl, but touches neither." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Raven

"Aegithognathous skull of raven, Corvus corax, nat. size, from nature, by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.A.…

"Mature stapes of fowl, about x4; after Parker. st, its foot, fitting fenestra ovalis; mst, main shaft, or medio-stapedial element; sst, supra-stapedial; est, extra-stapedial; ist, infra-stapedial, its end representing a rudimentary stylo-hyal; f, a fenestra in the extra-stapedial." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Ear Bone of Fowl

"Mature stapes of fowl, about x4; after Parker. st, its foot, fitting fenestra ovalis; mst, main shaft,…

"Muscles of a bird (accipiter nisus), after Carus, Tab. Anat. Comp., 1828, pl. 4. a, pharynx; b, trachea; e, hyoid bone; d, ear; e, humerous; f, radius; g, ulna; h, radial finger; i, tibia; k, metatarsus; l, hind toe; m, inner toe; n, middle toe; o, outer toe. 1, biventer cervicis, with central tendon 1 a, and upper 1 b, and lower 1 c, belly. 2, complexus. 3, flexor capitis lateralis. 4, flexor longus capitis. 5, extensor magnus cervicis. 6, descendens cervicis. 7, 7, semispinales. 8, flexorsuperior capitis. 9, flexor inferior or longus capitis. 10, 10, intertransversales. 11, levator coccygis. 12, depressor coccygis. 13, cruro-coccygeus (ilio-coccygeus?). 14, pubo-coccygeus. 15 ischio-coccygeus. 16, lateralis quartus (quadratus coccygis, to tail-feathers). 17, obliquus externus abdominis. 18, cucullaris (trapezius). 19, serratus magnus. 20, pectoralis major. 21, a, b, latissimus dorsi. 22, deltoid. 23, suprascapular. 24, coraco-brachialis. 25, biceps brachii. 26, supinatpr longus. 27, anconeus longus (part of "triceps"). 28, anconeus brevis. 29, anconeus brevissimus. 30 a, 30 b, tensor patagii, carpal and radial parts. 31, tensor patagii posterior. 32, extensormetacarpi longus. 33, extensor metacarpi brevis. 34 a, flexor digitorum sublimis. 34 b, flexor digitorum profundus. 34 c, flexor metacarpi radialis. 36, flexor (meta-) carpi ulnaris. 37, glutaeus maximus. 38, adductor femoris primus. 39, sartorius. 40, latissimus femoris. 41, gracilis = ambiens: only its tendon in sight. 42, vastus; 43, iceps cruris. 44, semimembranosus. 46,46,47, gastrocnemius. 48 digastricus (chief opener of the mouth). 49, temporal. 50, long ligament. 51, cutaneous muscle of scalp. 52, masseter. 53, a muscle of the hyoid bone. 54, tibialis anticus. 55, tibialis posticus. 56, extensor hallucis. 57, flexor hallucis. 58, flaxor digitorum profundus or perforans, seen in various places: long and short head, and several tendons. 59, extensor longus digitorum, tendons seen in various places 60, abductor digiti interni. 61,61,61, flexores digitorum perforati. 62, peronaeus. 63, abductor minimi digiti. 64, abductor hallucis." Elliot Coues, 1884

Eurasian Sparrowhawk Muscles

"Muscles of a bird (accipiter nisus), after Carus, Tab. Anat. Comp., 1828, pl. 4. a, pharynx; b, trachea;…

"Very generally, in cranes and swans, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is excavated to receive it, and where it forms one or more coils before emerging to pass to the lungs. This curious winding is carried to the extreme in our Grus americanus, the whoopong crane, in which the wind-pipe is about as long as the whole bird, and about half of it - over two feet of it! - is coiled away in the breast-bone." Elliot Coues

Whooping Crane Windpipe

"Very generally, in cranes and swans, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is excavated…

"Resipratory and vocal organs of the Rook, Corvus frugilegusm an Oscine Passerine bird; 1 a, tongue; b, basi-branchial, commonly called uro-hyal; c, c, horns of hyoid bone; d, d, genio-hyoid muscles; e, e, stylo-hyoid muscles; f, f, cleido-hyoid muscles; g, h, i, aesophagus; j, proventriculus; or secretory stomach; k, gizzard, or gigerium, the muscular stomach; l, m, n, n, intestine, duodenum to rectum; o, p, trachea, or windpipe; q, inferior larynx, or syrinx; r, r, right and left bronchus; ss, ss, contractor muscles or trachea; t, t, lungs with u, u, apertures communicating with thoracic air-cells; v, v, v, three pairs of muscular slips answering to a rudimentary diaphragm; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, as many ribs. Elliot Coues, 1884

The Respiratory and Vocal Organs of a Rook

"Resipratory and vocal organs of the Rook, Corvus frugilegusm an Oscine Passerine bird; 1 a, tongue;…

"Hyoid bone; a, glosso-hyal, tipped with cartilage, its posterior horn being certo-hyals proper; b, basi-hyal; c, basi-branchial proper, commonly called uro-hyall d, d, cerato-branchials proper, commonly called apo-hyals; e, e, epibranchials proper, commonly called cerato-hyals, tipped with cartilage, f, f.

The Hyoid-bone of a Rook

"Hyoid bone; a, glosso-hyal, tipped with cartilage, its posterior horn being certo-hyals proper; b,…

"Glottis, or opening of trachea in the mouth; a, base of tongue; b, b, horns of hyoid bone; c, rima glottidis, cleft or chink of the glottis; d, a triangular vacuity; e, an elastic ligament; d, d and e represent an epiglottis; f, f, a papillose surface." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Glottis of a Rook

"Glottis, or opening of trachea in the mouth; a, base of tongue; b, b, horns of hyoid bone; c, rima…

"Larynx viewed from before (below); a, thyroid bone or cartilage." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Larynx of a Rook

"Larynx viewed from before (below); a, thyroid bone or cartilage." Elliot Coues, 1884

"Larynx viewed from behind (above); a, thyroid bone; b, b, its appendages; c, cricoid; d, d, arytenoids; e, e, anterior border of thyroid, to which d, d, are connected by two arytenoid ligaments." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Larynx of a Rook

"Larynx viewed from behind (above); a, thyroid bone; b, b, its appendages; c, cricoid; d, d, arytenoids;…

"Bifurcation of trachea, and bronchi, viewed from below; a, pessulus, the bolt-bar, or "bone of divarication"; b, b, next succeeding tracheal half-rings.Elliot Coues, 1884

The Trachea of a Rook

"Bifurcation of trachea, and bronchi, viewed from below; a, pessulus, the bolt-bar, or "bone of divarication";…

""Views of sternum and pectoral arch of the ptarmigan, Lagapus albus, reduced. Lateral view, with the bones upside down. a, sternum or breast-bone showing two long slender lateral processes; b, ends of sternal ribs; c, ends of humerous, or upper arm-bone, near the shoulder-joint; d, scapula, or shoulder-blade; e, coracoid; f, merry-thought, or furculum." Elliot Coues, 1884

Willow Grouse Sternum

""Views of sternum and pectoral arch of the ptarmigan, Lagapus albus, reduced. Lateral view, with the…

"Views of sternum and pectoral arch of the ptarmigan, Lagapus albus, reduced; viewed from below. a, sternum or breast-bone showing two long slender lateral processes; b, ends of sternal ribs; c, ends of humerous, or upper arm-bone, near the shoulder-joint; d, scapula, or shoulder-blade; e, coracoid; f, merry-thought, or furculum." Elliot Coues, 1884

Willow Grouse Sternum

"Views of sternum and pectoral arch of the ptarmigan, Lagapus albus, reduced; viewed from below. a,…

A doll is an object that represents a baby or other human being. Dolls have been around since the dawn of human civilization, and have been fashioned from a vast array of materials, ranging from stone, clay, wood, bone, cloth and paper, to porcelain, china, rubber and plastic.

Female Doll Figure

A doll is an object that represents a baby or other human being. Dolls have been around since the dawn…

Skull of langur monkey viewed at the side and bottom view. The eyes of the monkey is surrounded by bone and located at the front of the skull. The lower jaw moves vertically.

Lateral and Lower Views of Langur Monkey Skull

Skull of langur monkey viewed at the side and bottom view. The eyes of the monkey is surrounded by bone…