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The grandest falls in the world are those of the Niagara, 160 feet high. Though greatly inferior to many others in height, yet their volume of water is so great that they surpass all others in grandeur.

The Falls of Niagara

The grandest falls in the world are those of the Niagara, 160 feet high. Though greatly inferior to…

The world's largest rodent, it has webbed feet and is usually in the water or along the shore of a river or lake.

Capybara

The world's largest rodent, it has webbed feet and is usually in the water or along the shore of a river…

A fish capable of spitting water about three to four feet at insects it intends to eat.

Archerfish

A fish capable of spitting water about three to four feet at insects it intends to eat.

Coffee is the berry of a tree found native in Abyssinia. The tree attains a height of 15 to 20 feet, but when cultivated, it is generally kept lower by cutting. The tree has shining green leaves, and bears beautiful white flowers, which are followed by reddish-brown berries, each of which contains two grains of coffee. The coffee-tree is cultivated extensively in Arabia, Java, the Philippines, Ceylon, Brazil, and in the West Indies.

Coffee

Coffee is the berry of a tree found native in Abyssinia. The tree attains a height of 15 to 20 feet,…

The foot of a tiger.

Tiger's Foot

The foot of a tiger.

The foot of a tiger.

Tiger's Foot

The foot of a tiger.

The foot of a duck.

Duck's Foot

The foot of a duck.

The foot of a hen.

Hen's Foot

The foot of a hen.

The claws of a bird.

Claw

The claws of a bird.

"A common cruciferous plant, the size of which varies from a few inches to a few feet."—Finley, 1917

Shepherd's purse

"A common cruciferous plant, the size of which varies from a few inches to a few feet."—Finley,…

"A small (under two feet) South and East African antelope, in which the horns of the male rarely exceed four inches."—Finley, 1917

Steinbok

"A small (under two feet) South and East African antelope, in which the horns of the male rarely exceed…

"Iron ores are smelted in a blast furnace which is operated in a manner similar to that employed in the production of copper matte. An iron blast furnace consists of a steel shell from 75 to 90 feet in height, lined with a thick layer of fire-brick." -Brownlee 1907

Blast Furnace for Cast Iron

"Iron ores are smelted in a blast furnace which is operated in a manner similar to that employed in…

"Suppose the inclined plane, to be two feet from A to B, and one foot from C to B, then, as we have already seen, a power of one pound at P, would balance a weight of two pounds at W." -Comstock 1850

Inclined Plane

"Suppose the inclined plane, to be two feet from A to B, and one foot from C to B, then, as we have…

"The upright cyclinder a, is a tube which has a funnel shaped mouth for the admission of the stream of water from the pipe b. This tube is six or eight inches in diameter, and may be from ten to twenty feet long. The arms n and o, are also tubes communicating freely with the upright one, from the opposte sides of which they proceed." -Comstock 1850

Centrifugal Mill

"The upright cyclinder a, is a tube which has a funnel shaped mouth for the admission of the stream…

"This will be understood [here] where the ray of light A B, proceeding from the eye, falls perpendicularly on the plane mirror B D. will be reflected back in the same line; but the ray C D coming from the feet, which falls obliquely on the mirror, will be reflected back under the same angle in the line D A; and since we see objects in the direction of the reflected rays, and the image appears at the same distance behind the mirror that is object is before it, we must continue the line A D to the feet, E, and for the same reason, the rays A B, from the eye, must be prolonged to F, as far behind the mirror as the line E extends, where the whole image will be represented." -Comstock 1850

Mirror Half the Length of the Object

"This will be understood [here] where the ray of light A B, proceeding from the eye, falls perpendicularly…

"Tie one end of a soft cotton rope about 20 feet long to a fixed support, and hold the other end in the hand. Move the hand up and down with a quick, sudden motion, so as to set up a series of waves in the rope, as shown, in which each curved line may be considered an instantaneous photograph of a rope thus shaken." -Avery 1895

Form of Waves

"Tie one end of a soft cotton rope about 20 feet long to a fixed support, and hold the other end in…

"About two feet away from an air thermometer, place an inverted flower pot. Midway between the two, place a board or glass screen that reaches from the table to a height of several inches above teh bulb of the air theremometer. Upon the flower pot, place a very hot brick. Notice that the heat of the brick has little effect upon the thermometer. Then hold a sheet of tin plate over the screen so that energy radianted obliquely upward from the brick may be reflected obliquely downward toward the thermometer. By properly adjusting the position of the reflector, the thermometer may be quickly affected." -Avery 1895

Heat Reflection

"About two feet away from an air thermometer, place an inverted flower pot. Midway between the two,…

"The maximum safe load in pounds that should be allowed at the end of any cylindrical cantilever is equal to the cube of its diameter in inches multiplied by .6 of the constant given in the tale, and the product divided by its length in feet." —Hallock 1905

Cylindrical Cantilever

"The maximum safe load in pounds that should be allowed at the end of any cylindrical cantilever is…

"The maximum safe load in pounds that any cylindrical beam is capable of sustaining at the middle when its ends merely rest upon supports, is equal to four times the cube of its diameter multiplied by .6 of the constant given in the table, and the product divided by the distance between its supports in feet." —Hallock 1905

Cylindrical Beam

"The maximum safe load in pounds that any cylindrical beam is capable of sustaining at the middle when…

Cylindrical water tank with a height of 10 ft., thickness of 3 inches, and diameter of 3 feet. The diagram can be used to find volume.

Cylindrical Water Tank

Cylindrical water tank with a height of 10 ft., thickness of 3 inches, and diameter of 3 feet. The diagram…

An illustration of a right circular cone with altitude of 10 ft. and angle of 30 degrees.

Right Circular Cone 10 Feet High With 30 Degree Angle

An illustration of a right circular cone with altitude of 10 ft. and angle of 30 degrees.

Right circular cylinder with a radius of 1 foot and a height/altitude of 2 feet.

Right Circular Cylinder With 1 ft. Radius and 2 ft. height.

Right circular cylinder with a radius of 1 foot and a height/altitude of 2 feet.

An illustration of a right circular cone with la radius of 1 foot and a height of 2 feet. Illustration could be used to find volume.

Right Circular Cone With 2 ft. Height and 1 ft. Radius

An illustration of a right circular cone with la radius of 1 foot and a height of 2 feet. Illustration…

An illustration of a composite figure made up of a quadrilateral frustum and half of a cylinder. Frustum edges range between 6 feet and 11 feet 5 inches and cylinder has a height of 12 feet.

Composite Figure of Quadrilateral Frustum With Half of a Cylinder Attached

An illustration of a composite figure made up of a quadrilateral frustum and half of a cylinder. Frustum…

An illustration of a right triangle made up of a flagpole, rope, and the ground. Illustration could be used with Pythagorean Theorem.

Right Triangle Formed by Flagpole (x feet high) and Ground With Rope (x+4 feet)

An illustration of a right triangle made up of a flagpole, rope, and the ground. Illustration could…

An illustration of a right triangle with sides, 40, 75, and x. Additional height of x is added to 75. Illustration could be used with Pythagorean theorem.

Right Triangle With Sides x, 75, and 40

An illustration of a right triangle with sides, 40, 75, and x. Additional height of x is added to 75.…

Right triangle ABC with a base angle of 67 degrees 4208 minutes and a hypotenuse of 23.47 ft.

Right Triangle ABC With Angle 67 degrees 42.8 minutes and Hypotenuse 23.47 ft.

Right triangle ABC with a base angle of 67 degrees 4208 minutes and a hypotenuse of 23.47 ft.

Right triangle ABC with a leg of 23.85 feet and a hypotenuse of 35.62 feet.

Right Triangle ABC With Leg 23.85 ft. and Hypotenuse 35.62 ft.

Right triangle ABC with a leg of 23.85 feet and a hypotenuse of 35.62 feet.

Illustration showing an angle of 23 degrees 40 minutes making a triangle in a city block and marking off streets at 100 foot intervals.

Triangular City Block With Angles and Lengths

Illustration showing an angle of 23 degrees 40 minutes making a triangle in a city block and marking…

Illustration showing a survey on the lake front in Chicago with distances and angle measures shown.

Survey of Lake Front in Chicago

Illustration showing a survey on the lake front in Chicago with distances and angle measures shown.

Circle with chord AB=2 ft. and radius OA = 3 ft.. Triangle AOC is a right triangle. Angle AOC=half angle AOB, and the central angle AOB has the same measure as the arc AnB.

Circle With a Chord of 2 ft. and a Radius of 3 ft.

Circle with chord AB=2 ft. and radius OA = 3 ft.. Triangle AOC is a right triangle. Angle AOC=half angle…

Leaves - simple, alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval. Apex - pointed. Base - pointed. Leaf - five to ten inches long, thin, dark green above; green beneath and slightly downy; growing along the branch and not simply in a cluster at its end. Bark - dark and rough. Flowers - three to six inches across, bluish or yellowish-white, abundant and fragrant. May, June. Fruit - in a cylinder-shaped bunch, two to three inches long, and somewhat resembling a small cucumber. Found - in rich woods from Western New York to southern Illinois and southward, and in cultivation. Its finest growth is in the southern Alleghany Mountains. General Information - A tree sixty to ninety feet high, with a straight trunk and rich foliage. The wood is durable, soft, and light. Used for cabinet-work, for flooring, for pump-logs, and water-troughs. As in other magnolias the juice is bitter and aromatic. From "magnol," the name of a botanist of the seventeenth century.

Genus Magnolia, L. (Magnolia)

Leaves - simple, alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval. Apex - pointed. Base - pointed. Leaf -…

Leaves - Simple, alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval or slightly reverse egg-shape. Apex, slightly blunt-pointed. Base, pointed. Leaf -about three to six inches long, thick and smooth; dark green and polished above; white below; the middle rib green and distinct; the side ribs slight and indistinct. Bark - of trunk, smoothish, light gray, aromatic and bitter. Flowers - large (two to three inches wide), white, at the ends of the branches, very fragrant. June, July. Fruit - bright red berries, at first in small cone-like clusters, then hanging by slender threads. September. Found - in swampy ground, from Massachusetts southward, usually near the coast. <p>General Information - A small tree (often a bush) four to twenty-five feet high, or higher southward, where its leaves are evergreen. All parts of the tree (and it is the same with the other magnolias) have an intensely bitter, aromatic juice, which is stimulating and tonic. From "magnol," the name of a botanist of the seventeenth century.

Genus Magnolia, L. (Magnolia)

Leaves - Simple, alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval or slightly reverse egg-shape. Apex, slightly…

Leaves - Simple, alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval or slightly reverse egg-shape. Apex, short, sharp-pointed. Base, pointed. Leaf - twelve to thirty-six inches long, six to eight inches wide; rather dark green above; lighter beneath; silky when young, but soon smooth; growing in clusters at the ends of the branches. Bark - smoothish and light. Flowers - seven to eight inches across, at the ends of the branches, white, and fragrant. May, June. Fruit - in a cylinder-shaped bunch, four to five inches long, and rose-colored as it ripens. Found - in Southeastern Pennsylvania and southward along the Alleghany Mountains, and in cultivation. <p>General Information - A tree twenty to thirty feet high, with irregular branches, and light, soft wood. As in other magnolias the juice is bitter and fragrant. From "magnol," the name of a botanist of the seventeenth century.

Genus Magnolia, L. (Magnolia)

Leaves - Simple, alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval or slightly reverse egg-shape. Apex, short,…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire. Outline - long, reverse egg-shape. Apex - pointed, in small leaves, sometimes rounded. Base - taper-pointed or slightly rounded. Leaf - five to ten inches long, thin, rusty downy with young, soon becoming smooth and polished. Bark - slivery-gray, smooth and polished; young shoots downy. Flowers - one and a half inches wide; dark to light, in drooping clusters, appearing with the leaves. March, April. Fruit - about three inches long by one and a half inches thick, egg-shape, yellow, about ten-seeded, fragrant, sweet, and edible. October. Found - from Western New York to Southern Iowa and southward. General Information - A small tree of unpleasant odor when bruised, ten to twenty feet high (or often only a bush) and densely clothed with its long leaves. <p>General Information - A small tree of unpleasant odor when bruised, ten to twenty feet high (or often only a bush) and densely clothed with its long leaves.

Genus Asimina, Adans (Papaw)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire. Outline - long, reverse egg-shape. Apex - pointed, in small…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire. Outline - oval or reverse egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - pointed. Leaf/Stem - slightly hairy when young. Leaf - two to five inches long; usually about half as broad; dark green and very shining above, especially when old; light green and shining below; thick, tough, and firm. Middle rib slightly hairy when young; side ribs rather indistinct and curved. Bark - grayish and often broken into short sections. Fertile Flowers - small, in clusters of three to eight on slender stems. April, May. Fruit - nearly one half inch long; bluish-black when ripe; egg-shape or oval; acid and rather bitter until "frosted." Stone - oval, somewhat pointed at each end, slightly flattened, and with three or four blunt ridges on each side. September. Found - from Southern Maine to Michigan, and southward to Florida and Texas. General Information - A tree twenty to forty feet high (larger southward), with flat, horizontal branches. The wood, even in short lengths, is very difficult of cleavage, and so is well fitted for beetles, hubs of wheels, pulleys, etc. Its leaves are the first to ripen in the fall, changing (sometimes as early as August) to a bright crimson. In the South, opossums climb the tree in search of its fruit and are immortalized in stories.

Genus Nyssa, L. (Sour Gum)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire. Outline - oval or reverse egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base -…

Leaves - simple; alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval or long egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - pointed or rounded. Leaf - three to five inches long, thickish; dark and smooth, usually shining, above; below dull, with ribs curved and irregular and minutely downy. On the upper surface the ribs are quite indistinct, except as the lea is held toward the light when they appear almost transparent. In the same position the left is seen also to be edged with a slight delicate fringe (appearing in the dried leaf like a line of yellow light). Bark - of trunk dark and rough. Flowers - greenish-yellow and small, at the base of the leaf-stems. June. Fruit - about one inch in diameter, rounded, nearly stemless, orange-red when ripe, with about eight large flat seeds. After frost it is of very pleasant flavor, before, exceedingly "puckery." Found - from Connecticut southward to Florida and westward to Southeastern Iowa. General Information - A tree twenty to sixty feet high; sometimes, at the South, more than one hundred feet high. The wood is hard and close-grained; the bark tonic and astringent. From two Greek words meaning fruit of Jove.

Genus Diospyros, L. (Persimmon)

Leaves - simple; alternate, edge entire. Outline - long oval or long egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire or lobed. Outline - when the edge is entire usually oval or egg-shape; when lobed usually broader and reverse egg-shape. Apex - of the leaf or of the lobes rounded or slightly blunt-pointed. Base - pointed or wedge-shape. Leaf - variable in size, dark, thin, smooth; rather shining above; the lobes, when resent, two or three in number and usually more or less bulging, with the hollows always rounded. Bark - obliquely and curiously furrowed and broken, gray without, reddish within; young twigs yellowish. Flowers - greenish-yellow, in clusters. May, June. Fruit - oval, one-seeded, blue, with a reddish, club shaped stem; pungent. Found - from Southwestern Vermont, southward and westward. General Information - a tree fifteen to fifty feet high with light and soft wood. All parts of the tree have a pleasant, spicy taste and fragrance. From the bark of the roots a powerful aromatic stimulant is obtained.

Genus Sassafras, Nees. (Sassafras)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge entire or lobed. Outline - when the edge is entire usually oval or…

Leaves - simple/alternate; edge somewhat irregularly very sharp-toothed. Outline - rounded, often very one-sided. Apex - pointed. Base - strongly heart-shaped. Leaf - usually about three to four inches wide, four to five inches long; sometimes much larger; rather thick, very smooth and shining above; with small tufts of reddish hairs in the angles of the ribs below; and often with the ribs themselves hairy. Bark - of the trunk very thick; on the young branches dark brown. Fruit - gray-downy, ovate, the size of small peas, clustered on a long stem of which the lower half is joined to half the length of a narrow, leaf-like bract, usually with a tapering base. Found - in rich woods, from British America southward to Virginia and along the Alleghany Mountains and westward. General Information - A straight-trunked tree, sixty to eighty feet high (often unbranching to half its height) and two to four feet in diameter. Its very tough inner bark is used for mats and coarse rope. The wood is white and soft and clear of knots. It is much used for wooden ware, in cabinet-work, and for the paneling of carriages, though now less esteemed than the tulip tree for these uses, owing to its liability to crack in bending.

Genus Tilia, L. (Basswood)

Leaves - simple/alternate; edge somewhat irregularly very sharp-toothed. Outline - rounded, often very…

Leaves - simple/alternate; edge somewhat irregularly very sharp-toothed. Outline - rounded, often very one-sided. Apex - pointed. Base - strongly heart-shaped. Leaf - five to eight inches long; deep green and shining above, beneath velvety and silvery white with purplish ribs. Bark - of the trunk very thick; on the young branches dark brown. Fruit - gray-downy, ovate, the size of small peas, clustered on a long stem of which the lower half is joined to half the length of a narrow, leaf-like bract, usually with a tapering base. Found - in rich woods, from the mountains of Pennsylvania to Georgia and westward. General Information - A straight-trunked tree, twenty to thirty feet high (often unbranching to half its height) and two to four feet in diameter. Its very tough inner bark is used for mats and coarse rope. The wood is white and soft and clear of knots. It is much used for wooden ware, in cabinet-work, and for the paneling of carriages, though now less esteemed than the tulip tree for these uses, owing to its liability to crack in bending.

Genus Tilia, L. (Basswood)

Leaves - simple/alternate; edge somewhat irregularly very sharp-toothed. Outline - rounded, often very…

Leaves - simple/alternate; edge somewhat irregularly very sharp-toothed. Outline - rounded, often very one-sided. Apex - pointed. Base - strongly heart-shaped. Leaf - two to three inches long; thinner than the T. Americana, deep green and shining above, beneath somewhat downy. Bark - of the trunk very thick; on the young branches dark brown. Fruit - rounded, about one fourth of an inch in diameter, and with the base of the leaf-like bract to which it is attached usually rounded at the base. Found - in rich woods, from New York to Florida and westward.. General Information - A straight-trunked tree, twenty to thirty feet high (often unbranching to half its height) and two to four feet in diameter. Its very tough inner bark is used for mats and coarse rope. The wood is white and soft and clear of knots. It is much used for wooden ware, in cabinet-work, and for the paneling of carriages, though now less esteemed than the tulip tree for these uses, owing to its liability to crack in bending.

Genus Tilia, L. (Basswood)

Leaves - simple/alternate; edge somewhat irregularly very sharp-toothed. Outline - rounded, often very…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed (with the points of the teeth so incurved as to appear blunt), and often finely "crinkled." Outline - usually long oval or long egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed. Leaf/Stem - usually with two to five tooth-like glands near the base of the leaf. Leaf - two to five inches long; thickish; polished, and of a deep shining green above; beneath, lighter and smooth, with the middle rib sometimes downy toward the base. In the autumn the leaves turn to orange and later to pale yellow. Bark - of old trunks, blackish and rough; of young trunks and on the larger branches, reddish or purplish brown; marked with scattered lines; on young shoots, at first green or olive brown, gradually becoming darker, and sprinkled (sic) with small orange dots. Flowers - white, with short stems, closely set in a long, cylinder-shaped cluster. May, June. Fruit - about one and a quarter inches in diameter; with short stems (one and a quarter to one and a third inches ) hanging in long, close clusters from the ends of the twigs. It is nearly black when ripe, and of a pleasant flavor though somewhat bitter; it is eagerly eaten by birds. August. Found - very widely distributed north, south, and west. It reaches its finest growth on the western slopes of the Alleghany Mountains. General Information - A tree fifty to eighty feet high. The wood is light and hard, of a brown or reddish tinge, becoming darker with exposure, and of very great value in cabinet work and interior finish. It is now becoming scarce, so that stained birch is often used as a substitute. The bitter aromatic bark is used as a valuable tonic; "cherry brandy" is made from the fruit.

Genus Prunus L. (Cherry, Plum)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed (with the points of the teeth so incurved as to appear blunt),…

Leaves - simple; alternate, or alternate in pairs; edge finely and sharply toothed. Outline - narrow egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed. Leaf/Stem - grooved above. Leaf - two to six inches long, shining and smooth and of about the same shade of green on both sides. Bark - reddish-brown and smooth, with swollen, rusty-colored dots, and usually stripping, like that of the garden cherry, around the trunk. Flowers - white, on stems about one inch or more in length, in nearly stemless clusters. May. Fruit - the size of a large pea, light red, on long stems (about three fourths to one inch long), sour, in clusters of two to five at the sides of the branches, and usually from the base of the leaf-stems; seldom abundant. July. Found - Common in all northern forests. In Northern New England it quickly occupies burned-out pine regions. General Information - A slender tree, usually twenty to twenty-five feet high, of no value as timber.

Genus Prunus L. (Cherry, Plum)

Leaves - simple; alternate, or alternate in pairs; edge finely and sharply toothed. Outline - narrow…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed. Outline - long oval to reverse egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - pointed or rounded. Leaf/Stem - one fourth to one half inch long, smooth, reddish, usually with two small wart-like glands on the raised border near the base of the leaf. Leaf - two to three inches long; smooth when mature; "net-veined," with distinct furrows over the ribs; somewhat downy on the ribs and in their angles. Bark - of trunk very dark reddish-green or bronze-green, resembling that of a cherry-tree. Fruit - one half to two thirds inch in diameter; broad oval; yellow, orange, or red; with a thick and acid skin and a pleasant flavor. August. Stone - slightly flattened, and with both edges winged and sharp. Found - from Canada southward to Florida and westward, and often in cultivation. General Information - A small tree (sometimes a bush), eight to twenty feet high, with hard, reddish wood. In cultivation it forms an excellent stock on which to graft the domestic plums.

Genus Prunus L. (Cherry, Plum)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed. Outline - long oval to reverse egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge distinctly toothed when mature; sometimes near three-lobed Outline - egg-shape or oval Apex - pointed. Base - rounded or somewhat heart-shaped Leaf/Stem - one half to one inch long, very slender, downy Leaf - about two to three inches long, two thirds as wide, smooth. Flowers - large; rose-colored and white, in loose clusters of five to ten blossoms, and very fragrant. May. Fruit - round, one to one and a half inches in diameter; yellowish, fragrant, hard, and sour; fit only for preserving. Found - from Ontario to Western New York, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia; long the Alleghany Mountains, and westward. General Information - A small tree, ten to twenty feet high, rarely thirty feet, gaining its finest growth in the valleys of the lower Ohio. Often its presence is recognized before it is seen by means of the delightful fragrance of its blossoms.

Genus Pyrus L. (Apple, Mt. Ash)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge distinctly toothed when mature; sometimes near three-lobed Outline…

Leaves - simple; alternate (and in alternate bunches); edge unevenly sharp-toothed (with five to nine deep cuts almost forming small lobes). Outline - rounded egg-shape Apex - pointed Base - usually slightly pointed, but often blunt or slightly heart-shape. Leaf/Stem - slender and often with small wart-like glands. Leaf - usually one and a half to two and a half inches long, but of variable size on the same tree; thin; smooth; shining. Branchlets - greenish, or whitish and shining, as though washed with silver. Thorns - one to two inches long, stout, often whitish, usually slightly curved. Flowers - about two thirds of an inch across; white (often with a rosy tinge); twelve or so in a bunch; with a strong and rather disagreeable odor. May. Fruit - nearly one half inch in diameter; rounded or egg-shape; bright red; with thin pulp and one to five stones; somewhat edible. September Found - through the Atlantic forests southward to Northern Florida and Eastern Texas. General Information - A low tree (or often a bush), ten to twenty feet high, with crooked, spreading branches; very common at the North; rare in the South. From a Greek word meaning strength.

Genus Crataegus, L. (Thorn)

Leaves - simple; alternate (and in alternate bunches); edge unevenly sharp-toothed (with five to nine…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and unequally toothed (sometimes with quite deep and sharp cuts, almost forming small lobes. Outline - oval or reverse egg-shape Apex - slightly pointed Base - tapering in a hollow curve and along the sides of the leaf-stem to a point Leaf/Stem - bordered by the leaf, to its base Leaf - about three to five inches long, one and a half to three inches wide; upper surface smoothish, and furrowed above the ribs; under surface downy at least when young; rather thick; permanently downy on the ribs. Thorns - one to two inches long Bark - of trunk, smooth and gray. New twigs, light greenish-brown Flowers - often one inch across; white eight to twelve in a cluster; at the ends of the branches; fragrant. May, June. Fruit - about one half inch in diameter, round or pear-shaped; orange-red or crimson; edible. October. Found - through the Atlantic forests to Western Florida, and from Eastern Texas far westward. Common. General Information - A thickly branching tree (or often a shrub) eight to twenty feet high; the most widely distributed of the American Thorns. It varies greatly in size, and in the style of its fruit and leaves. From a Greek word meaning strength.

Genus Crataegus, L. (Thorn)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and unequally toothed (sometimes with quite deep and sharp…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge unevenly sharp-toothed above the middle; sometimes, toward the apex deeply cut. Outline - reverse egg-shape. Apex - usually slightly pointed. Base - strongly wedge-shape, tapering from above the middle of the leaf and along the leaf-stem to a point. Leaf/Stem - one half to one inch long, slender, and winged by a tapering leaf. Leaf - one and a half to two and a half inches long; about as wide; light green; rather thick; downy when young; when mature, smooth and dull, or sometimes hairy below, especially of the ribs. Ribs, very straight below; above, marked by deep furrows. Thorns - one to two inches long, stout and curved, or often wanting. Bark - rough. Flowers - white; eight to fifteen in somewhat leafy bunches. May. Fruit - about one half inch in diameter, or more; usually dull red or yellow, with whitish dots; round; somewhat edible. September. Found - from New Brunswick and Vermont southward and westward. General Information - A thick, wide spreading tree, twelve to twenty-five feet high. From a Greek word meaning strength.

Genus Crataegus, L. (Thorn)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge unevenly sharp-toothed above the middle; sometimes, toward the apex…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge, sharply toothed above; entire below. Outline - reverse egg-shape. Apex - usually rounded, sometimes pointed. Base - tapering to a point, quite variable. Leaf/Stem - short. Leaf - one to two and a half inches long, half to three quarters as wide; dark green; thick, smooth, very shining above. Thorns - two to three inches long, rather slender and straight. Flowers - white; fragrant; in bunches of about fifteen blossoms, on very short side branchlets. June. Fruit - about one third inch in diameter; pear-shaped or round; red remaining on the three during the winter. Found - along the St. Lawrence and westward, and from Vermont, southward and westward; not common. General Information - A small, thick-branching tree, ten to twenty feet high. It is the best species of thorn for hedges. Var. pyracanthifolia has a somewhat narrower leaf and longer leaf stem. From a Greek word meaning strength.

Genus Crataegus, L. (Thorn)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge, sharply toothed above; entire below. Outline - reverse egg-shape.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and finely toothed. Outline - long oval, long egg-shape, or reverse egg-shape. Apex - sometimes bristle-pointed. Base - slightly heart-shaped or rounded. Leaf - usually two to three inches long, somewhat downy when young, afterward very smooth above and below. Bark - of branches and twigs usually purplish-brown and very smooth. Flowers - large, white, in long and loose clusters at the ends of the branchlets; appearing before the leaves. April, May. Fruit - berry-like, round, purplish, sweet, and edible. June. Found - in woods and along streams; common at the North; rare in the South. General Information - A small tree, ten to thirty feet high, or in some of its numerous forms reduced to a low shrub; noticeable and showy in early spring because of its flowers. The variety A. C. oblongifolia, T. and G., differs somewhat from the above in the dimensions of the flowers and flower clusters, etc. The name "shad-bush" is given because the trees blossom about the time that the shad "run".

Genus Amelanchier, Medik (June-berry)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge very sharply and finely toothed. Outline - long oval, long egg-shape,…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed. Outline - oval. Apex - pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed. Leaf - four to six inches long, one and a half to two and a half inches wide, soon becoming smooth, with a decided acid taste (whence the name). Bark - of trunk, rough and deeply furrowed. Flowers - white, in loose and long one-sided clusters. Found - from Pennsylvania and Ohio southward, chiefly along the Alleghany Mountains, and usually in dry, gravelly soil. General Information - A tree forty to sixty feet high, with hard, close-grained wood, which is used for the handles of tools, the bearings of machinery, etc. Name from two Greek words meaning sour and tree.

Genus oxydendrum, D. C. (Sorrel Tree)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed. Outline - oval. Apex - pointed. Base - rounded or slightly…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and often doubly toothed. Outline - oval or egg-shaped, or inversely egg-shaped; always one-sided. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded, or slightly heart-shaped, rarely pointed. Leaf/Stem - about one quarter inch long. Buds - smooth. Leaf - usually two to five inches long, and one and a half to two and a half wide; somewhat downy when young, afterward roughish below; above, either rough in one direction, or (especially if taken from the ends of the long branches) smooth and shining. Ribs - prominent and straight. Bark - of the branches not marked with "corky ridges"; branchlets, smooth. Seeds - flat egg-shaped or oval, winged and fringed all around. Last of May. Found - northward to Southern Newfoundland; southward to Florida; westward to the Black Hills of Dakota. Toward the western and southwestern limits it is found only in the river-bottom lands. General Information - One of the very noblest of American trees, eighty feet or more in height, and of strong and graceful proportions. The trunk divides at a slight angle into two or three arching limbs, and these again into many smaller curving and drooping branches. The trunk and the larger branches are often heavily fringed with short and leafy boughs. The tree is widely cultivated. Streets planted with it become columned and arched like the aisles of a Gothic cathedral. The wood is hard, and very tough from the interlacing of its fibers. It is used in making saddle-trees and for wheel-hubs, and is now largely exported to England to be used in boat- and ship-building. One day I found four men in a stone quarry, working with iron bars and rollers over a heavy flat slab. They were moving the stone slowly up a narrow plant into their cart. "John, " I said, "I would not think that board could hold a stone of such weight two minutes. Is it hickory?" "No sir, " said John, " that's an elm plank; it can't break." It did not break. It was one of the woods which the Deacon used in building his famous "one-hoss shay": So the deacon inquired of the village folk Where he could find the strongest oak, That count n't be split nor bent nor broke, - That was for spokes and floor and sills; He sent for lancewood to make the thills; The cross-bars were ash, from the straightest trees; The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese, But lasts like iron for thing like these; The hubs of logs from the Settler's Ellum; - Last of its timber, - they could n't sell 'em, Never an axe had seen their chips, And the wedges flew from between their lips, Their blunt ends frizzled like celery-tips;" --Oliver Wendell Holmes

Genus Ulmus, L. (Elm)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and often doubly toothed. Outline - oval or egg-shaped, or…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and doubly toothed. Outline - oval or long egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - slightly heart-shaped or rounded. Leaf/Stem - about one eighth inch long, stout and rough. Buds - hairy. Leaf - four to seven inches long, three to four inches wide. The upper surface is rough both ways, and very rough downwards, almost like a fine file. The under surface is slightly rough. Ribs - beneath are prominent and straight, and hairy in their angles. Bark - of the larger branches, brownish; branchlets, light-gray and very rough, becoming grayish-purple. The inner bark is very gummy and "slippery." Seeds - flat, round, winged, but not fringed. Last of May. Found - along the lower St. Lawrence to Ontario, and from Western New England westward and southward; in woods and along streams. General Information - A tree thirty to forty feet high. Its wood is hard and strong, but splits easily when dry. Though otherwise inferior, for posts it is superior to white elm. Its inner bark is sold by druggists as "slippery elm," and is nutritious and medicinal. Its name of red elm is due to the reddish-brown tinge of its large rounded and hairy buds in the spring.

Genus Ulmus, L. (Elm)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and doubly toothed. Outline - oval or long egg-shape. Apex…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, but entire at the base. Outline - obliquely egg-shaped, very one-sided. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - usually somewhat heart-shaped, or slightly pointed or rounded. Leaf - two to three inches long, one to two inches wide; rough. Bark - of the trunk, rough; sometimes much crumpled. Fruit - about the size of a pea; solitary; drooping from the bases of the leaf-stems, on stems once or twice as long as the leaf-stems; rounded; pulp thin, sweet, and edible; purplish red; ripe in September. Found - from the valley of the St. Lawrence westward and southward. General Information - A tree fifteen to thirty feet high (but much larger at the South), most common, and reaching its finest growth in the basin of the Mississippi. It is very variable in size and in the shape and texture of its leaves. Variety crassifolia is sometimes found, in which the leaves are thicker and usually toothed all around. Hackberry is an ancient name for lotus.

Genus Celtis, L. (Hackberry)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, but entire at the base. Outline - obliquely egg-shaped,…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge coarsely and somewhat irregularly toothed; or, at times, unequally and very variously two- to three-lobed. Outline - egg shape. Apex - long pointed (when there are side lobes their ends may be rounded). Base - heart-shaped, and more or less one-sided. Leaf - three to seven inches long, rather thin, rough above and downy below, sometimes becoming very smooth. The ribs are very distinct, and whitish below. Bark - grayish, and much broken. Berries - about the size and shape of small blackberries. When ripe they are very dark purple (nearly black), juicy, and sweet. July. Found - from Western New England, westward and southward. General Information - A tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high; in the Middle and Eastern States much larger. It is most common and reaches its finest growth along the lower Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Its wood is valuable, light, and soft, but very durable in contact with the ground. The White Mulberry (M. alba) is sometimes found around old houses and in fields. It was introduced from China, and was formerly cultivated as food for silk-worms. Its leaves resemble those of the Red Mulberry in shape, but are smooth and shining.

Genus Morus, L. (Mulberry)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge coarsely and somewhat irregularly toothed; or, at times, unequally…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge variable, either coarse-toothed or somewhat lobed; with the teeth or lobes sharp, and the hollows between them rounded. Outline - rounded. Apex - pointed. Base - more or less heart-shaped, squared, or rounded. Leaf/Stem - downy when young, smoothish when old; and covering the leaf-bud with its swollen base. Leaf - three and a half to eight inches wide, and usually broader than long; downy beneath when young, becoming smooth. Bark - the thin outer bark peels off each year in hard and brittle strips, leaving the branches and parts of the trunk with a mottled, whitish, polished-looking surface. Flowers - small, in compact, round balls (about one inch in diameter) like round buttons, which dry and harden, and cling to the branches by their slender stems (three to four inches long), and swing like little bells during a good part of the winter. Found - from Southern Main, southward and westward, in rich, moist soil, oftenest along streams. Its finest growth is in the bottom lands of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. General Information - The largest of the trees of the Atlantic forests, commonly sixty to eighty feet high; along the western rivers often eighty to one hundred and thirty feet high, sometimes more, with a circumference of forty to fifty feet. A tree in Eaton, N. J., is one of the largest in the Sate. It is eighty-five feel high. At a point eight fee from the ground its circumference is fourteen feet three inches. The largest trunks are usually hollow. The wood is hard and compact, difficult to split and work, of a reddish-brown color within. Its principle use is in the making of tobacco boxes. There is a fine and somewhat noted group of these trees on the grounds of James Know, in Knoxboro, N. Y. In old times they formed a favorite camping place for the Indians in their trading expeditions. They all measure not far from three feet in diameter. The name "sycamore," though a common one, should be dropped - it belongs to another and very different tree. From a Greek word meaning broad, in reference to the breadth of the buttonwood's shade or of its leaf.

Genus Platanus, L. (Buttonwood)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge variable, either coarse-toothed or somewhat lobed; with the teeth or…

Leaves - simple; alternate (often alternate in pairs); edge unequally sharp-toothed, with the base entire. Outline - triangular. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - variable, more or less squared, sometimes slightly hollowed, rounded or pointed. Leaf/Stem - long and slender, about three quarters of an inch or more in length. Leaf - one and three quarters to three inches long. Smooth and shining on both sides. Bark - The outer bark of the mature trunk is chalky-white and thin, but not, like the bark of the Paper-birch, easily separable into layers. Usually it is marked with blackish dots and lines. Often the branchlets and twigs are blackish, and in very young trees the bark may be light reddish-brown, and marked with white dots. Found - on poor soil, from Delaware and Pennsylvania northward (mostly toward the coast), and in ornamental cultivation. It springs up abundantly over burned and abandoned lands. General Information - A slender, short-lived tree, twenty to thirty feet high, with white, soft wood, not durable; used largely in making spools, shoe pegs, etc., and for fuel. A still more graceful cultivated species is the European Weeping Birch (B. pendula). Its branches are very drooping, with more slender leaves, and a spray that is exceedingly light and delicate, especially in early spring.

Genus Betula, L. (Birch)

Leaves - simple; alternate (often alternate in pairs); edge unequally sharp-toothed, with the base entire.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and unequally double-toothed. Outline - egg-shaped. Apex - pointed. Base - rounded, slightly heart-shaped, or, rarely, wedge-shaped. Leaf/Stem - downy. Leaf - two to three inches long; dark green and smooth above; beneath, dull, and with the ribs somewhat hairy, especially in their angles. Bark - of trunk very tough and durable; thick; snow-white on the outside; easily removed from the wood, and then itself very separable into paper-like sheets. The inner sheets are of a reddish tinge. Found - in the mountains of Northern Pennsylvania, New England, and far northward, farther than any other non-evergreen tree of America, excepting the aspen. General Information - A tree, forty to seventy feet high. The wood is light, hard, and very close-grained, but decays rapidly when exposed - more rapidly than the bark, which often remains as a shell long after the wood within has disappeared. It is very largely used in making spools, pegs, shoe-lasts, in turnery, for wood-pulp, and for fuel. The waterproof bark is much used by Indians and trappers for their canoes. "Give me of your bark, O Birch-Tree! Of your yellow bark, O Birch-Tree! Growing by the rushing river, Tall and stately in the valley! I a light canoe will build me, That shall float upon the river, Like a yellow leaf in autumn, Like a yellow water-lily. 'Lay aside your cloak, O Birch-Tree! Lay aside your white-skin wrapper, For the summer time is coming, And the sun is warm in the heaven, And you need no white-skin wrapper!'" Hiawatha

Genus Betula, L. (Birch)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and unequally double-toothed. Outline - egg-shaped. Apex -…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge unequally double-toothed, entire at base. Outline - egg-shape, often approaching diamond-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - somewhat pointed, often rather blunt wedge-shaped. Leaf/Stem - short (about one half to three fourths of an inch) and downy. Leaf - about three inches long by two inches wide, or often less; whitish and (until old) downy beneath; dotted; in autumn turning to a bright yellow. Bark - of the trunk reddish-brown. As the tree grows the bark becomes torn and loose, hanging in thin shreds of varying shades. The young twigs are downy. Found - on low grounds, especially along river banks, from Massachusetts westward and southward. It becomes common only in the lower part of New Jersey. Its finest growth is in the South. It is the only birch which grows in a warm climate. General Information - A tree usually thirty to fifty feet high, with the branches long and slender, arched and heavily drooping. Often the branches cover the trunk nearly to the ground. "Birch brooms" are made from the twigs.

Genus Betula, L. (Birch)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge unequally double-toothed, entire at base. Outline - egg-shape, often…

Leaves - simple; alternate (often alternate in pairs); edge very sharply, unequally, and rather coarsely toothed. Outline - egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - narrowed and heart-shaped. Leaf/Stem - short and downy. Leaf - about four by two and one fourth inches, or often smaller, thin' downy when young, becoming smooth. Ribs - straight. Bark - outer bark of trunk thin and a silvery yellow, and separating into narrow ribbons curling outwards at the ends. The twigs and the bark are sweet-tasting and aromatic, but less so than in the "Sweet Birch." Found - in moist woods, along the Alleghany Mountains, in Delaware and Southern Minnesota, and northward into Canada. General Information - A tree forth to eight feet or often more in height; one of the largest and most valuable non-evergreen trees of New England and Canada. Its hard, close-grained wood is largely used for fuel, in making furniture, button-moulds, wheel-hubs, pill-boxes, etc.

Genus Betula, L. (Birch)

Leaves - simple; alternate (often alternate in pairs); edge very sharply, unequally, and rather coarsely…