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"Monoclinic. Crystals varied in habit. Often with prominent basal plane which is steeply inclined and which in combination with short prism and pyramid faces gives a thin wedge-shaped crystal." — Ford, 1912

Titanite

"Monoclinic. Crystals varied in habit. Often with prominent basal plane which is steeply inclined and…

"Orthohombic. Habit of crystals is short prismatic; often in square prisms because of prominent development of the vertical pinacoids. Terminated by basal plane, pyramids and domes; frequently complex." — Ford, 1912

Columbite

"Orthohombic. Habit of crystals is short prismatic; often in square prisms because of prominent development…

"Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually long prismatic in habit; sometimes short prismatic or tabular. Usually terminated by prominent pyramid of first order and frequently a basal plane." — Ford, 1912

Apatite

"Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually long prismatic in habit; sometimes short prismatic or tabular.…

"Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually long prismatic in habit; sometimes short prismatic or tabular. Usually terminated by prominent pyramid of first order and frequently a basal plane." — Ford, 1912

Apatite

"Hexagonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually long prismatic in habit; sometimes short prismatic or tabular.…

"Orthohombic. Crystals usually tabular parallel to base; often diamond shaped because of the presence of a short prism. Both macro- and brachydomes usually present, either beveling the corners of the diamond-shaped crystals, or if the prism faces are wanting, beveling the edges of the tavles and forming rectangular prismatic-shaped crystals elongated parallel to either the brachy- or macro-axis." — Ford, 1912

Barite

"Orthohombic. Crystals usually tabular parallel to base; often diamond shaped because of the presence…

"Orthohombic. Crystals usually tabular parallel to base; often diamond shaped because of the presence of a short prism. Both macro- and brachydomes usually present, either beveling the corners of the diamond-shaped crystals, or if the prism faces are wanting, beveling the edges of the tavles and forming rectangular prismatic-shaped crystals elongated parallel to either the brachy- or macro-axis." — Ford, 1912

Barite

"Orthohombic. Crystals usually tabular parallel to base; often diamond shaped because of the presence…

"Orthorhombic. Crystals resemble closely those of barite. Commonly tabular parallel to the base or prismatic parallel to the brachy- or macro-axis with prominent development of the domes. Crystals which are elongated parallel to the brachy-axis are frequently terminated in front by four faces in nearly equal development, consisting of 2 prism faces and 2 of the macrodome." — Ford, 1912

Celestite

"Orthorhombic. Crystals resemble closely those of barite. Commonly tabular parallel to the base or prismatic…

"Monoclinic. Crystals usually tabular parallel to clinopinacoid; in diamond-shaped crystals with edges beveled by prism and pyramid faces." — Ford, 1912

Gypsum

"Monoclinic. Crystals usually tabular parallel to clinopinacoid; in diamond-shaped crystals with edges…

"Tetragonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually simple pyramids of first order. Closely resemble isometric octahedrons in angles. Faces of the pyramid of third order are small and rare." — Ford, 1912

Scheelite

"Tetragonal; tri-pyramidal. Crystals usually simple pyramids of first order. Closely resemble isometric…

This illustration shows Quartz or Silica. Quarts is the most abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust.

Quartz

This illustration shows Quartz or Silica. Quarts is the most abundant mineral in the Earth's continental…

An instrument by which a current of air or gas is driven through the flame of a lamp, candle, or gas jet, and that flame directed upon a mineral substance, to fure or vitrify it, an instense head being created by the rapid supply of oxygen and the concentration of the flame upon a small area.

Blowpipe

An instrument by which a current of air or gas is driven through the flame of a lamp, candle, or gas…

"The mineral corundum which includes the precious stones ruby, sapphire, and topaz, contains alumina, or aluminum oxide, Al2O3. It is found in nature crystallized in rhombohedral forms, having a specific gravity of 3.9, and is scarcely inferior in hardness to diamond." —Hallock 1905

Aluminum

"The mineral corundum which includes the precious stones ruby, sapphire, and topaz, contains alumina,…

This figure shows a thigh bone that has been softened by exposing it to acid, then twisted in a knot to demonstrate it's flexibility. Bones are composed of a "mineral" or hard substance and an "animal" or soft substance. The animal component can be removed by exposing the bone to extreme heat, causing the bone to become brittle and break easily. Similarly, the mineral component can be removed by exposing the bone to acid. Once the brittle mineral part is removed by the acid, the bone is soft and flexible.

Bone Exposed to Acid and Twisted

This figure shows a thigh bone that has been softened by exposing it to acid, then twisted in a knot…

Oil wells and tanks for mining petroleum.

Oil Wells and Tanks

Oil wells and tanks for mining petroleum.

"A biaxial interference figure showing the emergence of an optic axis. The arrow indicates the movement taking place upon inserting a quartz wedge above the section. The mineral is augite. (+)." -Johannsen, 1908

Biaxial Interference

"A biaxial interference figure showing the emergence of an optic axis. The arrow indicates the movement…

"Homestake open cut, sills in Cambrian, showing Algonkian schist below." -Walcott, 1901

Rock Mining

"Homestake open cut, sills in Cambrian, showing Algonkian schist below." -Walcott, 1901

"A distinct species, which exists in a little lake of mineral waters in France, where visitors amuse themselves by fishing for them with a line baited with bits of red cloth, which it attacks."

Gyrinus Distinctus

"A distinct species, which exists in a little lake of mineral waters in France, where visitors amuse…

"It is not unusual to fine a decayed spot in the center of potatoes otherwise apparently in good condition. A microscopic examination a portion of the diseased part will show that the decay commenced where the vascular bundles concentrate. At that point the air is in greater volume than elsewhere. Although these mineral acids and caustic alkalies dissolve starch granuals, they do not affect the cellulose cells which contain the starch. When such spots are exposed to the atmosphere the fungus blue-mold forms on the surface. This disease, therefore, has not relation to potato-rot, as ordinarily understood. f represents the mycelium (roots) of blue-mold, Penicillium glaucum, and G that of potato-rot, Peronospora infestans." -Watts, 1874

Potato Diseases at a Microscopic Level

"It is not unusual to fine a decayed spot in the center of potatoes otherwise apparently in good condition.…

An anthracite coal mine. Anthracite is a variety of mineral coal known by its high luster.

Coal Mine

An anthracite coal mine. Anthracite is a variety of mineral coal known by its high luster.

"Zircon, a mineral composed of of zirconium silicate, sometimes used as a gem-stone... THe mineral crystallizes in the tetragonal system, generally in combinations of square prisms and square pyramids" (Britannica, 1910).

Zircon

"Zircon, a mineral composed of of zirconium silicate, sometimes used as a gem-stone... THe mineral crystallizes…

"Zircon, a mineral composed of of zirconium silicate, sometimes used as a gem-stone... THe mineral crystallizes in the tetragonal system, generally in combinations of square prisms and square pyramids." -Britannica, 1910

Zircon

"Zircon, a mineral composed of of zirconium silicate, sometimes used as a gem-stone... THe mineral crystallizes…

Diopside is a monoclinic pyroxene mineral with composition MgCaSi<small><sub>2</sub></small>O<small><sub>6</sub></small>. It forms complete solid solution series with hedenbergite (FeCaSi<small><sub>2</sub></small>O<small><sub>6</sub></small>) and augite, and partial solid solutions with orthopyroxene and pigeonite. It forms variably colored, but typically dull green crystals in the monoclinic prismatic class. It has two distinct prismatic cleavages at 87 and 93&deg; typical of the pyroxene series. It has a Mohs hardness of six and a Vickers hardness of 7.7.

Diopside

Diopside is a monoclinic pyroxene mineral with composition MgCaSi2O6. It forms complete solid solution…

Dioptase is an intense emerald-green to bluish-green copper cyclosilicate mineral. It is transparent to translucent. Its luster is vitreous to sub-adamantine. Its formula is CuSiO<small><sub>3</sub></small>&sdot;H<small><sub>2</sub></small>O (also reported as CuSiO<small><sub>2</sub></small>(OH)<small><sub>2</sub></small>). It has a hardness of 5, the same as tooth enamel. It specific gravity is 3.28&ndash;3.35, and it has two perfect and one very good cleavage directions. Additionally, dioptase is very fragile and specimens must be handled with great care. It is a trigonal mineral, forming 6-sided crystals that are terminated by rhombohedra.

Dioptase

Dioptase is an intense emerald-green to bluish-green copper cyclosilicate mineral. It is transparent…

An illustration of duckweed. Duckweed is an important food source for waterfowl and are eaten by humans in some parts of Southeast Asia (as khai-nam). Some duckweeds are used in freshwater aquariums and ponds where they may spread rapidly, although in a large pond they may be difficult to eradicate once established. The plants can provide nitrate removal (if cropped) and cover for fry. The plants are used as shelter by pond water species, such as bullfrogs and bluegills. The duckweeds are important in the process of bioremediation because they grow rapidly, absorbing excess mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphates. A cover of duckweeds will reduce evaporation of water compared to a clear surface.

Duckweed

An illustration of duckweed. Duckweed is an important food source for waterfowl and are eaten by humans…

An illustration of duckweed. Duckweed is an important food source for waterfowl and are eaten by humans in some parts of Southeast Asia (as khai-nam). Some duckweeds are used in freshwater aquariums and ponds where they may spread rapidly, although in a large pond they may be difficult to eradicate once established. The plants can provide nitrate removal (if cropped) and cover for fry. The plants are used as shelter by pond water species, such as bullfrogs and bluegills. The duckweeds are important in the process of bioremediation because they grow rapidly, absorbing excess mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphates. A cover of duckweeds will reduce evaporation of water compared to a clear surface.

Duckweed

An illustration of duckweed. Duckweed is an important food source for waterfowl and are eaten by humans…

"The principle of proving a mineral field by boring is illustrated in [the illustration], which represents a line direct from the dip to the rise of the field, the inclination of the strata being one in eight." -Britannica, 1910

Proving Mineral Field

"The principle of proving a mineral field by boring is illustrated in [the illustration], which represents…

Beryl is a mineral containing beryllium and aluminum in the form of a silicate.

Crystal of Beryl

Beryl is a mineral containing beryllium and aluminum in the form of a silicate.

Ferrocolumbite, also called niobite, niobite-tantalite, columbate and columbite [(Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6] is a black mineral that is an ore of niobium and tantalum. It has a submetallic luster and a high specific gravity and is a niobate of iron and manganese, containing tantalate of iron. This mineral was first found at Haddam, Middlesex County, Connecticut in New England, USA. It forms a series with the tantalum-dominant analogue Ferrotantalite and one with the manganese-dominant analogue Manganocolumbite.

Ferrocolumbite

Ferrocolumbite, also called niobite, niobite-tantalite, columbate and columbite [(Fe, Mn)(Nb, Ta)2O6]…

An illustration of the upper terminal of a mineral elevator.

Mineral Elevator (Upper Terminal)

An illustration of the upper terminal of a mineral elevator.

An illustration of the lower terminal of a mineral elevator.

Mineral Elevator (Lower Terminal)

An illustration of the lower terminal of a mineral elevator.

Kyanite, whose name derives from the Greek word kyanos, meaning blue, is a typically blue silicate mineral, commonly found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites and/or sedimentary rock. Kyanite is a diagnostic mineral of the Blueschist Facies of metamorphic rocks.

Kyanite

Kyanite, whose name derives from the Greek word kyanos, meaning blue, is a typically blue silicate mineral,…

Goethite is a mineral composed of an iron hydrate crystallizing in soil and other low temperature environments.

Goethite

Goethite is a mineral composed of an iron hydrate crystallizing in soil and other low temperature environments.

Hemimorphite is a sorosilicate mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate.

Hemimorphite

Hemimorphite is a sorosilicate mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate.

Heulandite is the name of a series of tecto-silicate minerals of the zeolite group.

Heulandite

Heulandite is the name of a series of tecto-silicate minerals of the zeolite group.

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO<sub>2</sub>. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite is the chief ore of tin today.

Cassiterite

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals.…

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO<sub>2</sub>. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite is the chief ore of tin today.

Cassiterite

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals.…

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO<small><sub>2</sub></small>. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal faces produce a desirable gem. Cassiterite is the chief ore of tin today.

Cassiterite

Cassiterite is a tin oxide mineral, SnO2. It is generally opaque but is translucent in thin crystals.…

Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals. Hornblende is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but the name is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark amphibole.

Hornblende

Hornblende is a complex inosilicate series of minerals. Hornblende is not a recognized mineral in its…

Thin sections of chalk as seen under the microscope.

Sections of Chalk

Thin sections of chalk as seen under the microscope.

In zoology a skeleton is any fairly rigid structure of an animal, irrespective of whether it has joints and irrespective of whether it is biomineralized. The mesohyl functions as an endoskeleton in most sponges, and is the only skeleton in soft sponges that encrust hard surfaces such as rocks. More commonly the mesohyl is stiffened by mineral spicules, by spongin fibers or both. Portion of a wall of sponge (fig 17) showing the outer layer (e), the inner layer (i), consisting of collared cells, and the middle layer (m), consisting of irregular cells.

Skeleton of Sponge

In zoology a skeleton is any fairly rigid structure of an animal, irrespective of whether it has joints…

This silver-mounted meerschaum is made out of a soft white mineral. This design is in the shape of a pipe and has a scene of St. George (Christian Saint) and the Dragon.

Silver-Mounted Meerschaum

This silver-mounted meerschaum is made out of a soft white mineral. This design is in the shape of a…

This table-top is made from the marble of Derbyshire, England. It also is made out of lapis lazuli a semi-precious stone and malachite a mineral. The center of the table has a design of birds and flowers.

Table-Top

This table-top is made from the marble of Derbyshire, England. It also is made out of lapis lazuli a…

This casket is also known as a jewelry box, it is adorned with malachite (mineral) and precious stones. It is places on a gilt stand that also has malachite inserts.

Casket

This casket is also known as a jewelry box, it is adorned with malachite (mineral) and precious stones.…

Color flag of Zimbabwe. Seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green with a white isosceles triangle edged in black with its base on the hoist side; a yellow Zimbabwe bird representing the long history of the country is superimposed on a red five-pointed star in the center of the triangle, which symbolizes peace; green symbolizes agriculture, yellow - mineral wealth, red - blood shed to achieve independence, and black stands for the native people.

Flag of Zimbabwe, 2009

Color flag of Zimbabwe. Seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and…

Black and white outline flag of Zimbabwe. Seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green with a white isosceles triangle edged in black with its base on the hoist side; a yellow Zimbabwe bird representing the long history of the country is superimposed on a red five-pointed star in the center of the triangle, which symbolizes peace; green symbolizes agriculture, yellow - mineral wealth, red - blood shed to achieve independence, and black stands for the native people

Flag of Zimbabwe, 2009

Black and white outline flag of Zimbabwe. Seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black,…

An illustration of Melampyrum stem; "a, a flower; b, the fruit; c, a bract." -Century, 1889 Melampyrum is a genus of about 10-20 species of herbaceous flowering plants in the family Orobanchaceae, native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. They are hemiparasites on other plants, obtaining some mineral nutrients from the host plant, though they are able to survive on their own without parasitising other plants. Melampyrum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Mouse Moth.

Melampyrum

An illustration of Melampyrum stem; "a, a flower; b, the fruit; c, a bract." -Century, 1889 Melampyrum…

A petrographic light microscope used to identify thin layered rocks and minerals. The microscope have two polarizer filter beneath the sample, with circular rotating stage.

Petrographical Light Microscope with Mirror and Eyepieces

A petrographic light microscope used to identify thin layered rocks and minerals. The microscope have…

This jewelers gage is a tool commonly used by jewelers to inspect jewelry and other types of mineral ornaments

Jewelers Gage

This jewelers gage is a tool commonly used by jewelers to inspect jewelry and other types of mineral…

Mineral oil stoves are used by amateurs to exclude frost from small houses in the winter.

Mineral Oil Stove with Double Burners

Mineral oil stoves are used by amateurs to exclude frost from small houses in the winter.

This form shows a very complex combination of thirteen tetragonal forms occuring on the mineral Vesuvianite: the prism of the first order, (d); prism of the second order, (M); basal pinacoid, (s); three pyramids of the first order, (c), (b), and (u); the ditetragonal prism (f); and the four ditetragonal pyramids (z), (x), (e), and (a).

Vesuvianite

This form shows a very complex combination of thirteen tetragonal forms occuring on the mineral Vesuvianite:…

This figure exhibits a combination occurring on the ferro-magnesian meta-silicate, Hypersthene. Forms: (a), (b), (m), (n), (h), (o), (c), (i), and (u).

Hypersthene

This figure exhibits a combination occurring on the ferro-magnesian meta-silicate, Hypersthene. Forms:…

This figure shows a crystal of basic Zinc Silicate (calamine, hemimorphite) showing hemimorphism.

Calamine, Hemimorphite

This figure shows a crystal of basic Zinc Silicate (calamine, hemimorphite) showing hemimorphism.

In cases where the basal pinacoid is fixed by some physical property like cleavage, the elongation is in the direction of the clinodiagonal axis. This crystal of Feldspar shown is a common example of this elongation.

Elongation in the Direction of the Clinodiagonal Axis

In cases where the basal pinacoid is fixed by some physical property like cleavage, the elongation is…

In some cases, the elongation of a crystal may be in the direction of the orthogonal axis, whose position is determined by the plane of symmetry. This crystal of the silicate mineral, Epidote, shows an example of this.

Elongation in the Direction of the Orthogonal Axis

In some cases, the elongation of a crystal may be in the direction of the orthogonal axis, whose position…

An alternate combination of manganese meta-silicate (Rhodonite), showing forms: (c), (b), (a), (n), (h), (o), and (s).

Rhodonite

An alternate combination of manganese meta-silicate (Rhodonite), showing forms: (c), (b), (a), (n),…

This image represents a twin of the monoclinic mineral Gypsum. Its twinning plane is the orthopinacoid.

Gypsum (Twinning)

This image represents a twin of the monoclinic mineral Gypsum. Its twinning plane is the orthopinacoid.

This image represents a twin of the monoclinic mineral Orthoclase. Its twinning plane is the orthopinacoid.

Orthoclase (Twinning)

This image represents a twin of the monoclinic mineral Orthoclase. Its twinning plane is the orthopinacoid.

This figure shows an example of Compound Twinning, where two orthoclase twins are twinned in parallel to their basal pinacoid. Compound Twins are produced by the presence of two or more twinning laws in the same group.

Compound Twinning

This figure shows an example of Compound Twinning, where two orthoclase twins are twinned in parallel…

In the tetragonal system, the unit pyramid of the second order is the most common twinning plane. This is represented here as it occurs on crystals of Zircon, bounded by the forms (m), (u), (p), and (o).

Zircon (Twinning)

In the tetragonal system, the unit pyramid of the second order is the most common twinning plane. This…

Orthorhombic Iron Disulphide (Marcasite) sometimes shows cyclic groups of five individuals, bounded by ∞ P, {110} (M); P∞&#774;, {011} (l); and 0P, {001}, and united into a pentagonal figure by (M) as twinning plane.

Marcasite

Orthorhombic Iron Disulphide (Marcasite) sometimes shows cyclic groups of five individuals, bounded…