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"Medusiform person (Lizzia), one of the Anthomedusae, detached from a hydroid colony of the family Endendridae. Ocelli are seen at the base of the tentacles, and two medusiform buds on the sides of the manubrium." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Lizzia

"Medusiform person (Lizzia), one of the Anthomedusae, detached from a hydroid colony of the family Endendridae.…

"Medusiform person (Sarsia), one of the Anthomedusae, detached from a hydroid colony of the family Corynidae. b, the long manubrium, bearing (as an exception) medusiform buds; a, mouth." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Sarsia

"Medusiform person (Sarsia), one of the Anthomedusae, detached from a hydroid colony of the family Corynidae.…

"Medusiform person, one of the Anthomedusae, detached from a hydroid colony of Syncoryne. Ocelli are seen at the base of the tentacles, and also (as an exception) groups of medusiform buds." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Anthomedusae

"Medusiform person, one of the Anthomedusae, detached from a hydroid colony of Syncoryne. Ocelli are…

"Diagram showing possible modifications of medusiform and hydriform persons of a colony of Siphonophora. n, pneumatocyst; k, nectocalyces (swimming bells); l, hydrophyllium (covering-piece); i, generative medusiform person; g, dactylozooid with attached tentacle, h; e, nutritive hydriform person, with branched grappling tentacle, f; m, stem. The thick black line represents endoderm, the thinner line ectoderm." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Siphonophora

"Diagram showing possible modifications of medusiform and hydriform persons of a colony of Siphonophora.…

"Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, Buthusaustralis." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Scorpion

"Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, Buthusaustralis." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

"Drawing from tlife of the Italian scorpion Euscorpius italicus, Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with its left chela, and carefully piercing it between head and thorax with its string. Two insertions of the string are effected and the fly is instantly paralysed by the poison so introduced into its body." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Scorpion

"Drawing from tlife of the Italian scorpion Euscorpius italicus, Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with…

"One end of the cup-adjusting hub, with inward bearings. The cones are formed of one piece with the spindles, and the adjusting cp C is screwed in the end of the hub shell, and locked in position by the screwed locking-ring R. The figure also illustrates a divided spindle for facilitating the removal of the tire for repair when required without disturbing the wheel, bearings, chain or gear-case. The chain side of the hub-spindle, not shown in the figure, is secured to the frame in the usual way; on the left side the spindle S projects very little beyond the adjusting cup. A distance washer W is placed between the end of the spindle S and the fork-end F. A detachable screw-pin, or the footstep, P, passes through the washer W, and is screwed into the end of the spindle S, the hexagod head of the detachable pin drawing all the parts securely together." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Cup-adjusting Hub

"One end of the cup-adjusting hub, with inward bearings. The cones are formed of one piece with the…

"Sepulchral or monumental, large plates of brass inlaid in polished slabs of stone, and usually exhibiting the figure of the person intended to be commemorated, either in a carved outline on the plate or in the form of the plate itself. In place of the figure we sometimes find an ornamented cross. The earliest example of these monumental slabs now existing in England is that on the tomb of Sir John D'Abernon at Stoke D'Abernon Surrey." — Winston's Encyclopedia, 1919

Brasses

"Sepulchral or monumental, large plates of brass inlaid in polished slabs of stone, and usually exhibiting…

"A Sanskrit word the Universal Power or ground of all existence, and also (in its masculine form with long final syllable) a particular deity, the first person in the Triad (Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva) of the Hindus. The personal god Brahma is represented as a red or golden-colored figure with four heads and as many arms, and he is often accompanied by the swan or goose. He is the god of the fates, master of life and death, yet he is himself created, and is merely the agent of Brahma, the Universal Power." — Winston's Encyclopedia, 1919

Brahma

"A Sanskrit word the Universal Power or ground of all existence, and also (in its masculine form with…

"Why does a person carrying a weight upon his back stoop forward? In order to bring the center of gravity of his body and the load over his feet. If held in this position, he would fall backwards, as the direction of the center of gravity would fall beyond his heels." — Wells, 1857

Center of Gravity

"Why does a person carrying a weight upon his back stoop forward? In order to bring the center of gravity…

"Why does a person carrying a weight upon his back stoop forward? In order to bring the center of gravity of his body and the load over his feet, he assumes this position." — Wells, 1857

Center of Gravity

"Why does a person carrying a weight upon his back stoop forward? In order to bring the center of gravity…

"A representation of the manner in which the image is formed in the eye of a near-sighted person. The curvature of the cornea, s s, and of the crystalline lens, c c, is so great that the image is formed at m m in advance of the retina." —Wells, 1857

Near-sighted

"A representation of the manner in which the image is formed in the eye of a near-sighted person. The…

"A representation of the manner in which the image is formed upon the retina in the perfect eye. The curvature of the cornea, s s, and of the crystalline lens, c c, is just sufficient to cause the rays of light proceeding from the image, e e, to converge the right focus, m, upon the retina." —Wells, 1857

Perfect Eye

"A representation of the manner in which the image is formed upon the retina in the perfect eye. The…

"A representation of the manner in which the image is formed in the eye, when the cornea or crystalline lens is flattened. The perfect image would be produced at m m, behind the retina, and, of course, beyond the point necessary to secure perfect vision." —Wells, 1857

Flattened Eye

"A representation of the manner in which the image is formed in the eye, when the cornea or crystalline…

"Professor Swan's Designs.—Among several ingenious arrangements and new forms of agents proposed by Professor Swan is the mode of sending rays from prisms through interstices left between other prisms placed in front, and also a form of agent which he termed the triesoptric prism, in which the rays would undergo two refractions and three reflexions. a are the front and b the triesoptric prisms. The two upper and lower prisms a are constructed of flint glass of high refractive power. It will be observed from the drawing that this ingenious arrangement is nevertheless open to objection, for cones of light of 30 degrees in front and of 65 degrees at the back are lost through the interstices." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Swans Designs

"Professor Swan's Designs.—Among several ingenious arrangements and new forms of agents proposed by…

A form of pen used for drawing lines of even thickness. It commonly consists of two blades which hold ink between them. The distance apart of the points being adjusted by a screw to conform to the desired width of the line.

Ruling Pen

A form of pen used for drawing lines of even thickness. It commonly consists of two blades which hold…

"Windlass.—The common windlass for drawing water is another modification of the wheel and axle. The winch, or crank, by which it is turned, is moved around by the hand, and there is no difference in the principle, whether a whole wheel is turned, or a single spoke. The winch, therefore, answers to the wheel, while the rope is taken up, and the weight raised by the axle, as already described." —Comstock, 1850

Windlass

"Windlass.—The common windlass for drawing water is another modification of the wheel and axle.…

"An instrument called the hydrostatic bellows, also shows, in a striking manner, the great force of a small quantity of water, pressing in a perpendicular direction. This instrument consists of two boards, connected together with strong leather, in the manner of the common bellows. It is then furnished with a tube a, which communicated between the two boards. A person standing on the upper board may raise himself up by pouring water into the tube. If the tube holds an ounce of water, and has an area equal to a thousandth part of the area of the top of the bellows, one ounce of water in the tube will balance a thousand ounces placed on the bellows." —Comstock, 1850

Hydraulic Bellows

"An instrument called the hydrostatic bellows, also shows, in a striking manner, the great force of…

"The simplest idea of a crank is that of a handle to a wheel; its action is familiarly illustrated in the process of drawing water from a well: the bent handle attached to the wheel is first pushed out, then pulled in the opposite direction, and thus a continued rotatory motion is produced upon an axle. The application of this principle to the steam engine, and the variations of pressure on the crank of a steam enginre, may be conveniently illustrated by curves." —Comstock, 1850

Crank

"The simplest idea of a crank is that of a handle to a wheel; its action is familiarly illustrated in…

"The refraction of water is beautifully proved by the following simple experiment. Place an empty cup, with a shilling on the bottom, in such a position that the side of the cup will just hide the piece of money from the eye. Then let another person fill the cup with water, keeping the eye in the same position as before. As the water is poured in, the shilling will be come visible, appearing to rise with the water. The effect of the water is to bend the ray of light coming from the shilling, so as to make it meet the eye below the point where it otherwise would. Thus the eye could not see the shilling in the direction of c, since the line, of vision is towards a, and c is hidden by the side of the cup. But the refraction of the water bends the way downwards, producing the same effect as though the object had been raised upwards, and hence it becomes visible." —Comstock, 1850

Cup and Shilling

"The refraction of water is beautifully proved by the following simple experiment. Place an empty cup,…

This figure represents the whole of the points and lines requisite for working out a drawing in "parallel perspective." 1) The point of sight; 2)The horizontal line; 3) The point of station; 4) The points of measurement.

Parallel Perspective

This figure represents the whole of the points and lines requisite for working out a drawing in "parallel…

This figure comprises the whole of the points and lines preparatory to beginning a drawing in "angular perspective." 1) The point of sight; 2)The horizontal line; 3) The point of station; 4) The nearest corner of the object to be drawn; 5) The ground line of the building or object, lying on that side, and produced from the nearest corner up to the horizontal line, in order to determine the vanishing point marked 5; 6) A line taken from the vanishing point 5, to the point of station 3; 7) A line drawn at right angles to 6, and extending from the point of station to the horizontal line, at its junction with which the vanishing point, marked 8, is determined; 9) A point of measurement obtained by the use of the vanishing point 8; 10) The other point of measurement, obtained by vanishing point 5; 11) The geometrical scale of the building or object upon a base line drawn through the nearest corner.

Angular Perspective

This figure comprises the whole of the points and lines preparatory to beginning a drawing in "angular…

Two upright oblong figures are here represented in parallel perspective. They may be imagined to resemble the sides and fronts of houses, or their blank walls. One of the figures has two others attached to it of equal dimensions; and these additions might be similarly multiplied to any extent, by the numbers, 7, 8, 9 and 10, in the followig rules. 1) Lines forming to complete fronts of two separate and detached oblongs. 2) The geometrical scale at the base, marked twenty feet. 3) The ground lines of the fronts running to the vanishing point. 4) The top lines tending to vanishing point. 5) Lines from the geometrical scale, to the points of measurement, determining the perspective depths of the oblongs. 6) Perpendicular lines raised at the intersection of the lines 3 and 5, and giving the farthest upright corner lines of the oblongs. The two figures will thus be completed. The remaining lines inserted in the figure are intended to give two other oblongs (or rather their retiring sides) attached to the first, and supposed to be of the same dimensions. They are determined first by finding the centre 7 of the near corner line 1. From 7 a line is drawn to the vanishing point. A line marked 8 is then drawn from the near extremity of 1 through 6, where it is cut by 7; at its intersection with the bottom line 3, the perpendicular line 9 is raised, and another oblong front is completed. A line 10 is drawn, and determined as the line 8 was, from the top of 6, and by crossing the lines 7 and 3. The lines 13, 14, and 15, are inserted merely to show the inner side and back of the other oblong, as they would be seen were the object made of glass. Thus 13,13 are lines for the top and bottom of the back; formed by drawing them to the vanishing point; 14,14 are the top and bottom lines of the farthest side, found by straight lines being drawn from both ends of , until they meet 13,13; at which point of meeting the upright corner of the oblong are completed.

Parallel Perspective

Two upright oblong figures are here represented in parallel perspective. They may be imagined to resemble…

This cube has four additional cubes of equal dimensions. This is effected by first drawing the cube in the order and then finding the centre of the upright line 5, that being the nearest corner line of this first cube. The centre being found at 10, take the line 10 to the vanishing point for that side of the cube; this will give the centres of all the other upright lines of that side of all the added cubes. The line 11 is drawn from the top of the corner line 5, through the intersection of 8 and 10, until it meets the ground line 1, at its junction with which the upright line is raised for the far corner line 12 of the second cube. The three other cubes are described precisely in the same manner, being found by the diagonal lines traversing each pair of the cubes, through the intersection of the centre line 10, with each perpendicular line raised from the meeting of the previous diagonal line with the ground line 1. It will be perceived that a further distance of twelve feet is added to one side of the geometrical scale, and marked A. This is done merely to prove the correctness of the first diagonal line 11, passing through the centre line 10, to determine the perspective depth of the second cube. For if a line be taken from the end of the geometrical scale A to the point of measurement on the horizontal line, it will be found to meet the ground line 1 at exactly the same point; thus proving the truth of both modes of drawing. The former mode, however, is more convenient where a number of cubes are to be drawn; as the geometrical scale might extend far beyond the limits of the paper, and consequently give much more trouble.

Angular Perspective

This cube has four additional cubes of equal dimensions. This is effected by first drawing the cube…

A landscape drawing showing the proper position for the horizontal line.

Horizontal Line

A landscape drawing showing the proper position for the horizontal line.

A drawing of a landscape positioning a horizontal line.

Horizontal Line

A drawing of a landscape positioning a horizontal line.

A drawing of a landscape showing the proper position for the horizontal line.

Horizontal Line

A drawing of a landscape showing the proper position for the horizontal line.

Raphael's sister, Elisabetta. From a Drawing by Raphael.

Elisabetta

Raphael's sister, Elisabetta. From a Drawing by Raphael.

From a Drawing by Raphael of the decoration in the Farnesina Palace, Rome.

Decoration of the Farnesina Palace

From a Drawing by Raphael of the decoration in the Farnesina Palace, Rome.

A painting by Johann Overbeck. It is from the Drawing in the Linden Collection at Basle

Christ in the Temple

A painting by Johann Overbeck. It is from the Drawing in the Linden Collection at Basle

A painting by Johann Overbeck. It is from a Drawing in the Dreden Print Room.

Christ Falling Under the Cross

A painting by Johann Overbeck. It is from a Drawing in the Dreden Print Room.

This painting is from a drawing by the author of Padua in Italy.

Padua

This painting is from a drawing by the author of Padua in Italy.

The artist is unknown for the drawing of the childhood home of William Turner. The house on Maiden Lane still stands today.

House in Maiden Lane in which Turner was born

The artist is unknown for the drawing of the childhood home of William Turner. The house on Maiden Lane…

The artist is unknown for this drawing. The picture is of the room in which Turner was found months after his death by his maid.

The Room in which Turner Died

The artist is unknown for this drawing. The picture is of the room in which Turner was found months…

This portrait is of Francesco Raibolini. The artist is unknown.

Francesco Raibolini

This portrait is of Francesco Raibolini. The artist is unknown.

A woman drawing a picture of a map.

Woman Drawing

A woman drawing a picture of a map.

During new and full moon, the earth, moon, and sun are all in the same straight line, but, that during the first and last quarters, they are at right angles. The portions of the earth and moon turned toward the sun are illumined, the shaded portions are in the darkness. To an observer on the earth, the moon, at <em>a</em>, appears new, since the dark part is turned toward the person; at <em>b</em>, however, it must appear full, since the illumined portions are toward the person. At <em>c</em>, and <em>d</em>, the positions of the quarters, only one-half of the illumined half, or one quarter, is seen.

Cause of the Phases of the Moon

During new and full moon, the earth, moon, and sun are all in the same straight line, but, that during…

Pencils are the basic tool for mechanical drawing. Pencilling is the first basic skill in mechanical drawing.

Mechanical Pencils

Pencils are the basic tool for mechanical drawing. Pencilling is the first basic skill in mechanical…

Top and side views of mechanical drawing scales.

Scales

Top and side views of mechanical drawing scales.

Different compasses used in mechanical drawing.

Compasses

Different compasses used in mechanical drawing.

The use of a compass in drawing perfect circles

Compass Use

The use of a compass in drawing perfect circles

Dotted lines can indicate a relationship among figures, such as one inside another.

Drawing Lines 1

Dotted lines can indicate a relationship among figures, such as one inside another.

Shading of the right and lower sides gives dimension to drawings.

Drawing Lines 2

Shading of the right and lower sides gives dimension to drawings.

Top and side views of a hexagonal pyramid shaded with dimension lines.

Drawing Lines 3

Top and side views of a hexagonal pyramid shaded with dimension lines.

Circles should be unshaded or shaded evenly with thick and thin lines, changing at about 45 degrees.

Drawing Lines 4

Circles should be unshaded or shaded evenly with thick and thin lines, changing at about 45 degrees.

Different surfaces can be indicated by changing the pattern or direction of lines.

Drawing Sections

Different surfaces can be indicated by changing the pattern or direction of lines.

Draftsman's second method for drawing an ellipse

Ellipse Second Method

Draftsman's second method for drawing an ellipse

Draftsman's third method for drawing an ellipse

Ellipse Third Method

Draftsman's third method for drawing an ellipse

Draftsman's fourth method for drawing an ellipse, case 1

Ellipse Fourth Method Case 1

Draftsman's fourth method for drawing an ellipse, case 1

Draftsman's fourth method for drawing an ellipse, case 2

Ellipse Fourth Method Case 2

Draftsman's fourth method for drawing an ellipse, case 2

Draftsman's fourth method for drawing an ellipse, case 3

Ellipse Fourth Method Case 3

Draftsman's fourth method for drawing an ellipse, case 3

Draftsman's fifth method for drawing an ellipse

Ellipse Fifth Method

Draftsman's fifth method for drawing an ellipse

Draftsman's first method for drawing a parabola

Parabola First Method

Draftsman's first method for drawing a parabola

Draftsman's second method for drawing a parabola

Parabola Second Method

Draftsman's second method for drawing a parabola

Draftsman's second method for drawing a hyperbola

Hyperbola Second Method

Draftsman's second method for drawing a hyperbola

"A drawing of a crystal showing a combination of the cube, octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron is shown, in which the faces are lettered the same as the corresponding poles in the projection." -The Encyclopedia Britannica 1910

Clinographic Drawing of a Cubic Crystal

"A drawing of a crystal showing a combination of the cube, octahedron and rhombic dodecahedron is shown,…

Regions of the abdomen and their contents (edge of costal cartilages in dotted outline). "For convenience of description the abdomen may be artificially divided into nine regions by drawing two circular lines around the body parallel with the cartilages of the ninth ribs, and the highest point of the crests of the ilia; and two vertical lines from the cartilage of the eighth rib on each side to the center of Poupart's ligament. The vicar contained in these different regions are as follows: -- Right Hypochondriac - the right lobe of the liver and gall-bladder, hepatic flexure of the colon, and part of the right kidney. Right Lumbar - ascending colon, part of the right kidney, and some convolutions of the small intestines. Right Inguinal (Iliac) - the caecum, appendix caeci. Epigastric Region - the middle and pyloric end o the stomach, left lobe of the liver, the pancreas, the duodenum, part of the kidneys and the suprarenal capsules. Umbilical Region - the transverse colon, part of the great omentum and mesentery, transverse part of the duodenum, and some convolutions of the jejunum and ileum, and part of both kidneys. Hypogastric Region - convolutions of the small intestines, the bladder in children, and in adults if distended, and the uterus during pregnancy. Left Hypochondriac - the splenic end of the stomach, the spleen and extremity of the pancreas, the splenic flexure of the colon, and part of the left kidney. Left Lumbar - descending color, part of the omentum, part of the left kidney, and some convolutions of the small intestines. Left Inguinal (Iliac) - sigmoid flexure of the colon." &mdash; Kimber, 1907.

Regions of the Abdomen and their Contents

Regions of the abdomen and their contents (edge of costal cartilages in dotted outline). "For convenience…

"Suppose the tumbler, a, to be filled with water, and placed beyond the principal focus of the concave mirror, and so managed as to be hid from eye c, by the screen b. The lamp by which the tumbler is illuminated must also be placed behind the screen, and near the tumbler, To a person placed at c, the tumbler with its contents will appear incerted at e, and suspended in the air." -Comstock 1850

Deception by Mirrors

"Suppose the tumbler, a, to be filled with water, and placed beyond the principal focus of the concave…

"Double convex lenses are used in the eyeglasses for old people, becoming more spherical according to the age of the person or the magnifing power required." -Comstock 1850

Double Convex Lens Magnifing an Arrow

"Double convex lenses are used in the eyeglasses for old people, becoming more spherical according to…

"Suppose the object a, appears to the naked eye of the length repreesnted in the drawing. Now, as the rays coming from each end of the object, form by their convergence at the eye, the visual angle, or the angle under which the object is seem, and we call objects large or small in proportion as this angle is obtuse or acute, if, therefore, the object a be withdrawn futher from the eye, it is apparent that the rays o, o, proceeding from its extremities, will enter the eye under a more acute angle, and therefore that the object will appear diminished in proportion." -Comstock 1850

Visual Angle

"Suppose the object a, appears to the naked eye of the length repreesnted in the drawing. Now, as the…