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"The Gold Medal Boiler is perhaps one of the best of these modified saddles, and like the others has a dome or arch a, and back water-way b; the heated products of combustion striking against this back are sent up the central flue c, and then diverted into the side flues d, d, before passing into the chimney shaft e." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Gold Medal Boiler

"The Gold Medal Boiler is perhaps one of the best of these modified saddles, and like the others has…

"A very powerful and economical one, for large establishments especially. It is a modification of the well-known Cornish boiler, and consists of two wrought-iron cylinders substantially rivetted together, and having a water space of about 2 inches between them. The frame for the furnace doors d is attached to the front. It is supported by two cast-iron chairs a, a, the front chair forming the frame for the lower flue doors b, which fasten by a simple catch, and can readily be lifted off for cleaning the flues. The plug c, opened by unscrewing it, is for the purpose of clearing out all interior accumulation of dirt, which should be done thoroughly at short intervals. The flow pipe is at e, the return at f." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Trentham Boiler

"A very powerful and economical one, for large establishments especially. It is a modification of the…

"A horizontal tubular, which is found to be extremely powerful as well as economical. It is a rectangular box 6 feet long, made of 2-inch iron pipes, fixed into hollow water spaces which form the ends; these pipes act as fire bars, and form the sides of the furnace. above the fire there are three series of horizontal pipes, each covered by a layer of tiles so placed as to convert the two intervening spaces into flues, along which the flames and smoke travel for 18 feet, the smoke escaping at the far end by an opening in the upper layer of tiles." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Ladds's Boiler

"A horizontal tubular, which is found to be extremely powerful as well as economical. It is a rectangular…

"A special contrivance for a cutting pot was brought into notice many years ago by Mr. A. Forsyth. A smaller pot was put into a larger one, the hole at the bottom being closed with clay a; the bottom of the outer pot is filled with crocks b, so that the small pot is brought up to the level of the larger one; and the space between the two pots c is filled with propagating soil, the cuttings being so planted that their ends rest against the sides of the inner pot, which is then filled with water, and this passing slowly through the sides of the pots, just keeps the soil moistened." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Cutting Pot

"A special contrivance for a cutting pot was brought into notice many years ago by Mr. A. Forsyth. A…

"Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely formed and well furnished by cutting them down severely every season, after the blooming is over. The plants should be prepared for this by keeping them rather dry at the root, and after cutting they must stand with little or no water till the stems heal over, and produce yound shoots, or "break," as it is technically termed." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Pelargoniums

"Some plants, like pelargoniums, can only be kept handsomely formed and well furnished by cutting them…

"When a water fall ranges between 10 and 70 feet, and the water supply is from 3 to 25 cubic feet per second, it is possible to construct a bucket wheel on which the water acts chiefly by its weight. If the variation of the head-water level does not exceed 2 feet, an overshot wheel may be used. The water is then projected over the summit of the wheel, and falls in a parabolic path into the buckets. With greater variation of head-water level, a pitch-back or high breast wheel is better. The water falls over the top of a sliding sluice into the wheel, on the same side as the head race channel. By adjusting the height of the sluice, the requisite supply is given to the wheel in all positions of the head-water level. The wheel consists of a cast-iron or wrought-iron axle C supporting the weight of the wheel. To this are attached two sets of arms A of wood or iron, which support circular segmental plates termed shrouds B. A cylindrical sole plate dd extends between the shrouds on the inner side. The buckets are formed by wood planks or curved wrought-iron plates extending from shroud to shroud, the back of the buckets being formed by the sole plate." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Water Wheel

"When a water fall ranges between 10 and 70 feet, and the water supply is from 3 to 25 cubic feet per…

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines. It is one of the best even in normal conditions of working, and the mode of regulation introduced is decidedly superior to that in most reaction turbines; it might almost be said to be the only mode of regulation which satisfies the conditions of efficient working, and it has been adopted in a modified form in the Leffel turbine, which is now largely used in america. The turbine has suction pipes, which permit the turbine to be placed at any height less than 30 feet above the tail-water level. The water enters the turbine by cast-iron supply pipes at A, and is discharged through two suction pipes S. The water on entering the case distributes itself through a rectangular supply chamber SC, from which it finds its way equally to the four guide-blade passages G. In these passages it acquires a velocity about equal to that due to half the fall, and is directed into the wheel at an angle of about 10 or 12 degrees with the tangent to its circumference. The wheel W receives the water in equal proportions from each guide-blade passage." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Reaction Turbine

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines.…

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines. It is one of the best even in normal conditions of working, and the mode of regulation introduced is decidedly superior to that in most reaction turbines; it might almost be said to be the only mode of regulation which satisfies the conditions of efficient working, and it has been adopted in a modified form in the Leffel turbine, which is now largely used in america. The turbine has suction pipes, which permit the turbine to be placed at any height less than 30 feet above the tail-water level. The water enters the turbine by cast-iron supply pipes at A, and is discharged through two suction pipes S. The water on entering the case distributes itself through a rectangular supply chamber SC, from which it finds its way equally to the four guide-blade passages G. In these passages it acquires a velocity about equal to that due to half the fall, and is directed into the wheel at an angle of about 10 or 12 degrees with the tangent to its circumference. The wheel W receives the water in equal proportions from each guide-blade passage." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Reaction Turbine

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines.…

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines. It is one of the best even in normal conditions of working, and the mode of regulation introduced is decidedly superior to that in most reaction turbines; it might almost be said to be the only mode of regulation which satisfies the conditions of efficient working, and it has been adopted in a modified form in the Leffel turbine, which is now largely used in america. The turbine has suction pipes, which permit the turbine to be placed at any height less than 30 feet above the tail-water level. The water enters the turbine by cast-iron supply pipes at A, and is discharged through two suction pipes S. The water on entering the case distributes itself through a rectangular supply chamber SC, from which it finds its way equally to the four guide-blade passages G. In these passages it acquires a velocity about equal to that due to half the fall, and is directed into the wheel at an angle of about 10 or 12 degrees with the tangent to its circumference. The wheel W receives the water in equal proportions from each guide-blade passage." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Reaction Turbine

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines.…

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines. It is one of the best even in normal conditions of working, and the mode of regulation introduced is decidedly superior to that in most reaction turbines; it might almost be said to be the only mode of regulation which satisfies the conditions of efficient working, and it has been adopted in a modified form in the Leffel turbine, which is now largely used in america. The turbine has suction pipes, which permit the turbine to be placed at any height less than 30 feet above the tail-water level. The water enters the turbine by cast-iron supply pipes at A, and is discharged through two suction pipes S. The water on entering the case distributes itself through a rectangular supply chamber SC, from which it finds its way equally to the four guide-blade passages G. In these passages it acquires a velocity about equal to that due to half the fall, and is directed into the wheel at an angle of about 10 or 12 degrees with the tangent to its circumference. The wheel W receives the water in equal proportions from each guide-blade passage." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Reaction Turbine

"Professor James Thomson's inward flow or vortex turbine has been selected as the type of reaction turbines.…

"The general sectionl elevation of a Girard turbine, in which the flow is axial. The water, admitted above a horizontal floor, passes down through the annular wheel containing the guide-blades, G, and thence into the revolving wheel WW. The revolving wheel is fixed to a hollow shaft suspended from the pivot p. The solid internal shaft ss is merely a fixed column supporting the pivot. The advantage of this is that the pivot is accessible for lubrication and adjustment. B is the mortise bevel wheel by which the power of the turbine is given off. The sluices are worked by the hand wheel h, which raises them successively, in a way to be described presently. a is the sluice rods." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Girard Turbine

"The general sectionl elevation of a Girard turbine, in which the flow is axial. The water, admitted…

"The sectional form of the guideblade chamber and the wheel and the curves of the wheel vanes and guideblades, when drawn on a plane development of the cylindrical section of the wheel; a, a, a are the sluices for cutting off the water; b, b, are apertures by which the entrance of exit of air is facilitated as the buckets empty and fill." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Guideblade Chamber

"The sectional form of the guideblade chamber and the wheel and the curves of the wheel vanes and guideblades,…

"The sectional form of the guideblade chamber and the wheel and the curves of the wheel vanes and guideblades, when drawn on a plane development of the cylindrical section of the wheel; a, a, a are the sluices for cutting off the water; b, b, are apertures by which the entrance of exit of air is facilitated as the buckets empty and fill." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Guideblade Chamber

"The sectional form of the guideblade chamber and the wheel and the curves of the wheel vanes and guideblades,…

"A centrifugal pump differing from an ordinary centrifugal pumps in one feature only. The water rises through a suction pipe S, which divides so as to enter the pump wheel at the center on each side. The pump disk or wheel is very similar to a turbine wheel. it is keyed on a shaft driven by a belt on a fast and loose pulley arrangement at P. The water rotating in the pump disk presses outwards, and if the speed is sufficient a continuous flow is maintained through the pump and into the discharge pipe D. The special feature in this pump is that the water, discharged by the pump disk with a whirling velocity of not inconsiderable magnitude, is allowed to continue rotation in a chamber somewhat larger than the pump. The use of this whirlpool chamber was first suggested by Professor James Thomson." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Centrifugal Pump

"A centrifugal pump differing from an ordinary centrifugal pumps in one feature only. The water rises…

"This hygrometer consists of two thermometers a and b similar to each other in all respects except that one of them has a piece of muslin tied closely over the surface of its bulb c, and kept constantly wet by a few threads of cotton which connect it with the water in the vessel d. the water then which rises from the vessel by capillary attraction spreads over the muslin, and evaporates from its surface with more or less rapidity according to the dryness or moistness of the air; and the greater the dryness of the air the greater is the difference between the observed readings of the dry and the wet thermometers." — Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Bulb Hygrometer

"This hygrometer consists of two thermometers a and b similar to each other in all respects except that…

An elongated fish living in temperate to tropical water. Rarely seen.

Oarfish

An elongated fish living in temperate to tropical water. Rarely seen.

"Carbonic acid water, generally spoken of as Sodawater, though it seldom contains any soda. It is prepared on athe large scale by placing whiting, chalk, or carbonate of lime in a lead vessel with water and sulphuric acid, when the sulphuric acid combines with the lime to form stucco or sulphate of lime, and carbonic acid is evolved as gas." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

Soda Water

"Carbonic acid water, generally spoken of as Sodawater, though it seldom contains any soda. It is prepared…

"Carbonic acid water, generally spoken of as Sodawater, though it seldom contains any soda. It is prepared on athe large scale by placing whiting, chalk, or carbonate of lime in a lead vessel with water and sulphuric acid, when the sulphuric acid combines with the lime to form stucco or sulphate of lime, and carbonic acid is evolved as gas." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

Soda Water

"Carbonic acid water, generally spoken of as Sodawater, though it seldom contains any soda. It is prepared…

An irrigation tool invented by the people of ancient Sumer. It uses weights to make lifting buckets of water almost effortless.

Shadoof

An irrigation tool invented by the people of ancient Sumer. It uses weights to make lifting buckets…

"A term etymologically applicable to any very small animal, and limited in actual use to those which are microscopical. Animalcules exist in prodigious numbers, and of many different kinds, their size being such that multitudes of them find ample space for all the movements of an active life within a single drop of water; and they abound almost wherever there is moisture, at least wherever organic matter is present." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

Animalcule

"A term etymologically applicable to any very small animal, and limited in actual use to those which…

"A machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes, during his stay in Egypt for draining and irrigating the land." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

Archimedes Screw

"A machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes, during his stay in Egypt for…

"Water Cress (Nasturtium officinale)." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

Water Cress

"Water Cress (Nasturtium officinale)." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

A water wading bird mostly found in Europe. Has a dark green back and grey head.

Solitary Sandpiper

A water wading bird mostly found in Europe. Has a dark green back and grey head.

"A, Dytiscus Marginalis, or great Water-beetle; B, larva." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

Great Diving Beetle

"A, Dytiscus Marginalis, or great Water-beetle; B, larva." — Chambers' Encyclopedia, 1875

A fresh or brackish water fish. Commonly eaten at food.

Roach

A fresh or brackish water fish. Commonly eaten at food.

A machine drill used to drill through rocky surfaces. Powered by steam, water or horse.

Rock Drill

A machine drill used to drill through rocky surfaces. Powered by steam, water or horse.

"Myrrh, is the name given to a gum resin which exudes from a shrub growing in Arabia and Abyssinia, called Balsamodendron Myrrha. It was much esteemed as an unguent and perfume by the ancients, who used it also for embalming and for incense. it is still used as a perfume and for incense, as also medicinally. By distillation with water myrrh yields a viscid, brownish-green, volatile oil. Myrrh of the best quality is known as Turkey murrh; that of an inferior kind goes under the name of East Indian, being exported from Bombay." — Winston's Encyclopedia, 1919

Myrrh

"Myrrh, is the name given to a gum resin which exudes from a shrub growing in Arabia and Abyssinia,…

"A wheel driven by water shot over the top. The buckets of the wheel receive the water as nearly as possible at the top, and retain it until they approach the lowest point of the decent. The water acts principally by its gravity, though some effect is of course due to the velocity with which it arrives." — Winston's Encyclopedia, 1919

Water-wheel

"A wheel driven by water shot over the top. The buckets of the wheel receive the water as nearly as…

"Anatomy of the Oyster. A. Hinge or anterior umbonal end of the left valve of an adult oyster, upon which the soft parts of the animal are represented as they lie in situ, but with the greater part of the mantle of the right side removed. a u. The auricle of the right side of the heart contracted. B. Posterior or ventral end of the left valve, which in life is usually directed upward more or less, and during the act of feeding and respiration is separated slightly from the margin of its fellow of the opposite side to admit the water for respiration, and which also contains the animal's food in suspension. b m. Body-mass, traversed superficially by the generative ducts g e. b j. The organ of Bojanus, or 'renal' organ, of the right side of the oyster. (The ducts which it sends into the manle are not shown, nor is its connection with the genito-urinary sinus s indicated.)" — Winston's Encyclopedia, 1919

Oyster

"Anatomy of the Oyster. A. Hinge or anterior umbonal end of the left valve of an adult oyster, upon…

"Langens arrangement is a somewhat similar combination, the cone being made into a bell with perforated top, the edges of the perforation being turned over inwards bb; the bell rests upon the cup aa, the turned over edge cc fitting into a water lute surrounding the central tube kkk, so that whilst the bell is lowered the furnace top is gastight or nearly so. By means of a pair of levers d, d and a counterpoise swung on a horizontal axle at r by means of a winch e, the bell can be raised so that the charge in the cup falls into the furnace, sliding down the inclined surface. Two safety valves x and fg are provided, the latter being ordinarily supported by the pressure of the gases, but falling by its own weight when the gas pressure is relieved by raising the bell, so as to close the top of the gas shaft, the turned-down edges of g fitting into the annular groove oo; h is a small manhole for the introduction of scrapers to clear out flue dust when required." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Langen's Collector

"Langens arrangement is a somewhat similar combination, the cone being made into a bell with perforated…

"Langens arrangement is a somewhat similar combination, the cone being made into a bell with perforated top, the edges of the perforation being turned over inwards bb; the bell rests upon the cup aa, the turned over edge cc fitting into a water lute surrounding the central tube kkk, so that whilst the bell is lowered the furnace top is gastight or nearly so. By means of a pair of levers d, d and a counterpoise swung on a horizontal axle at r by means of a winch e, the bell can be raised so that the charge in the cup falls into the furnace, sliding down the inclined surface. Two safety valves x and fg are provided, the latter being ordinarily supported by the pressure of the gases, but falling by its own weight when the gas pressure is relieved by raising the bell, so as to close the top of the gas shaft, the turned-down edges of g fitting into the annular groove oo; h is a small manhole for the introduction of scrapers to clear out flue dust when required." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Langen's Collector

"Langens arrangement is a somewhat similar combination, the cone being made into a bell with perforated…

"The term "refining," although in strictness applicable to all methods by which impure iron is purified, is in practice restricted to one particular operation practised as a preliminary stage in the puddling process, viz., melting pig iron on a hearth, on which the fuel is piled, the combustion being urged by a blast of air, which also partially oxidizes the iron, both as it melts and subsequently; the molten mass when the operation is complete is either run out into moulds, chilled by throwing water on it." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Refinery

"The term "refining," although in strictness applicable to all methods by which impure iron is purified,…

"The term "refining," although in strictness applicable to all methods by which impure iron is purified, is in practice restricted to one particular operation practised as a preliminary stage in the puddling process, viz., melting pig iron on a hearth, on which the fuel is piled, the combustion being urged by a blast of air, which also partially oxidizes the iron, both as it melts and subsequently; the molten mass when the operation is complete is either run out into moulds, chilled by throwing water on it." — The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1893

Refinery

"The term "refining," although in strictness applicable to all methods by which impure iron is purified,…

"When a vessel containing water is whirled rapidly round, why does not the water fall out when the vessel is upside down? Because the centrifugal force, tending to make the water fly from the center, overcomes or balances the attraction of gravitation, which tends to cause the water to fall out." — Wells, 1857

Centrifugal Force

"When a vessel containing water is whirled rapidly round, why does not the water fall out when the vessel…

A wheel used to create energy by running water.

Water Wheel

A wheel used to create energy by running water.

A wheel used to create energy by running water.

Water Wheel

A wheel used to create energy by running water.

"a, a, a, represents the water-level of a pond or reservoir upon elevated ground. From this pond a line or pipe is laid, passing over a bridge or viaduct at d, and under a river at c. The fountains, at b, b, show the stream rising to its level in the pond, a, at two points of very different elevation." — Wells, 1857

Water Level

"a, a, a, represents the water-level of a pond or reservoir upon elevated ground. From this pond a line…

"Suppose a to be a gravel hill, and b a strata of clay or rock, impervious to water. The fluid percolating through the gravel would reach the impervious strata, along which it would run until it found an outlet at c at the foot of the hill, where a spring would be formed." — Wells, 1857

Gravel Hill

"Suppose a to be a gravel hill, and b a strata of clay or rock, impervious to water. The fluid percolating…

"A sandy stratum, a a, acting as a filter, occupies an inclined position between two other strata impervious to water, such as clay, the water being absorbed by the superficial parts of the strata, as at a a (which may be of very great extent), will penetrate through its whole depth, and, finding no egress below on account of the basin-like form of the stratum, or from its resting at the lower termination upon a compact rock, will accumulate." — Wells, 1857

Sandy Stratum

"A sandy stratum, a a, acting as a filter, occupies an inclined position between two other strata impervious…

"The common pump consists of a hollow tube, the lower part of which, descending into the water, is called the suction-pipe, and the upper part, b, the battel or cylinder; of a spout, s, at the top of the cylinder; of an air-tight priston, which works up and down in the cylinder; and of two valves, both opening upwards, one of which, g, is placed at the top of the suction-pipe, and the other, p, in the piston." — Wells, 1857

Pump

"The common pump consists of a hollow tube, the lower part of which, descending into the water, is called…

"In the forcing-pump atmospheric pressure plays but a small part. There is no valve in the piston c, but the water raised through the suction-pipe a, and the valve g, is forced by each depression of the piston up through the pipe e e, which is furnished with a valve to prevent the return of the fluid." — Wells, 1857

Forcing-Pump

"In the forcing-pump atmospheric pressure plays but a small part. There is no valve in the piston c,…

"The chain-pump consists of a tube or cylinder, the lower part of which is immersed in a well or reservoir, and the upper part enters the bottom of a cistern into which the water is to be raised. A chain is carried round a wheel at the top, and is furnished at equal distances with movable bottoms, which fit water-tight in the tube. As the wheel revolves, they successively enter the tube, and carry the water up before them, which is discharged into the cistern at the top of the tube." — Wells, 1857

Chain-Pump

"The chain-pump consists of a tube or cylinder, the lower part of which is immersed in a well or reservoir,…

"A peculiar-shaped vessel called a retort is half filled with a volatile liquid and heated; the steam, as it forms, passes through the neck of the retort into a glass receiver contained in a vessel filled with cold water, and is then condensed." —Wells, 1857

Retort

"A peculiar-shaped vessel called a retort is half filled with a volatile liquid and heated; the steam,…

"Let S be the position of the spectator; O and B the position of distant objects. The rays O R and B R which proceed from them, strike the surface of the water very obliquely, and the light which is reflected in the direction R S is sufficient to make a sensible impression upon the eye. But in regard to objects such as A placed near the spectator, they are not seen reflected, because the rays A R' which proceed from them strike the water with but little obliquity; and consequently, the part of their light which is reflected in the direction R' S, towards the spectator, is not sufficient to produce a sensible impression upon the eye." —Wells, 1857

Reflection

"Let S be the position of the spectator; O and B the position of distant objects. The rays O R and B…

"Here, of the rays S A, S B, and S C, only the ray S C meets the eye of the spectator D. The spot C, therefore, will appear luminous to the spectator D, but no other spot of the water A B C." —Wells, 1857

Reflection

"Here, of the rays S A, S B, and S C, only the ray S C meets the eye of the spectator D. The spot C,…

"The following simple experiment illustrates the effect of refraction:—Place a silver coin, m, at the bottom of the basin. The rays, i i, proceeding to the eye from the silver surface, render the coin visible. The point a, the eye, is then moved farther bck, so that the edge of the basin obstructs the direct rays, and of course the coin is no longer seen. If an attendant carefully pours water into the basin, so that the object is not moved, it will presently, as the water rises in the basin, become again visible. This arises from the refraction of the rays by the water, the image, indeed, appearing at n instead of at m." —Wells, 1857

Refraction

"The following simple experiment illustrates the effect of refraction:—Place a silver coin, m,…

"A gold chain is formed of wires closely plaited and very flexible, the ends terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having small rings to secure the collar behind." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Egyptian Chain

"A gold chain is formed of wires closely plaited and very flexible, the ends terminating in the heads…

"Harness hides are washed by some means in pure water, the most convenient and generally adopted method being to place them in the dash wheel, in which they revolve and tumble about whilst fresh water is continually being poured on them within the revolving wheel." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Dash Wheel

"Harness hides are washed by some means in pure water, the most convenient and generally adopted method…

"Another machine now largely used by curriers is the scouring machine, a level table or platform freely movable in all directions, having mounted over it a reciprocating frame in which are fixed brushes and pieces of slate or thin stone. These, with a small jet of water, scour and brush the entire surface of the leather lying on the platform, effectually scouring out bloom and all soluble impurities." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Scouring Machine

"Another machine now largely used by curriers is the scouring machine, a level table or platform freely…

The part of the helm which is abaft the stern post and is turned by the tiller so as to expose its side more or less to the resistance of the water and thus directing the ship's course.

Rudder

The part of the helm which is abaft the stern post and is turned by the tiller so as to expose its side…

The part of the helm which is abaft the stern post and is turned by the tiller so as to expose its side more or less to the resistance of the water and thus directing the ship's course.

Rudder

The part of the helm which is abaft the stern post and is turned by the tiller so as to expose its side…

The part of the helm which is abaft the stern post and is turned by the tiller so as to expose its side more or less to the resistance of the water and thus directing the ship's course.

Rudder

The part of the helm which is abaft the stern post and is turned by the tiller so as to expose its side…

"Windlass.—The common windlass for drawing water is another modification of the wheel and axle. The winch, or crank, by which it is turned, is moved around by the hand, and there is no difference in the principle, whether a whole wheel is turned, or a single spoke. The winch, therefore, answers to the wheel, while the rope is taken up, and the weight raised by the axle, as already described." —Comstock, 1850

Windlass

"Windlass.—The common windlass for drawing water is another modification of the wheel and axle.…

"Suppose the cistern a to be capable of holding one hundred gallons, and into its bottom there be fitted the tube b, bent, as seen in the figure, and capable of containing one gallon. The top of the cistern, and that of the tube, being open, pour water into the tube at c, and it will rise up through the perpendicular bend into the cistern, and if the process be continued, the cistern will be filled by pouring water into the tube. Now it is plain, that the gallon of water in the tube presses against the hundred gallons in the cistern, with a force equal to the pressure of the hundred gallons, otherwise, that in the tube would be forced upwards higher than that in the cistern, whereas, we find that the surfaces of both stand exactly at the same height." —Comstock, 1850

Water Pressure

"Suppose the cistern a to be capable of holding one hundred gallons, and into its bottom there be fitted…

"Suppose a number of vessels, of different shapes and sizes to have a communication between them, by means of a small tube, passing from the one to the other. If, now, one of these vessels be filled with water, or if water be poured into the tube A, all the other vessels will be filled at the same instant, up to the line B C. Therefore, the pressure of the water A, balances that in 1, 2, 3, while the pressure in each of these vessels is equal to that in the other, and so an equilibrium is produced throughout the whole series." —Comstock, 1850

Water Pressure

"Suppose a number of vessels, of different shapes and sizes to have a communication between them, by…

"An instrument called the hydrostatic bellows, also shows, in a striking manner, the great force of a small quantity of water, pressing in a perpendicular direction. This instrument consists of two boards, connected together with strong leather, in the manner of the common bellows. It is then furnished with a tube a, which communicated between the two boards. A person standing on the upper board may raise himself up by pouring water into the tube. If the tube holds an ounce of water, and has an area equal to a thousandth part of the area of the top of the bellows, one ounce of water in the tube will balance a thousand ounces placed on the bellows." —Comstock, 1850

Hydraulic Bellows

"An instrument called the hydrostatic bellows, also shows, in a striking manner, the great force of…

"The pump barrel, a, b, is represented as divided lengthwise, in order to show the inside. The piston, c, is fitted so accurately to the barrel, as to work up and down water tight; both barrel and piston being made of iron. The thing to be broken or pressed, is laid on the flat surface, i, there being above this, a strong frame to meet the pressure, not shown in the figure. The small forcing pump, of which d is the piston, and h, the lever by which it is worked, is also made of iron." —Comstock, 1850

Hydraulic Press

"The pump barrel, a, b, is represented as divided lengthwise, in order to show the inside. The piston,…

"Rupture of a Mountain.—There is no doubt, but in the operations of nature, great effects are sometimes produced among mountains, by a small quantity of water finding its way to a reservoir in the crevices of the rocks far beneath. Suppose, in the interior of a mountain, there should be a space of ten yards square, and an inch deep, filled with water, and closed up on all sides; and suppose that, in the course of time, a small fissure, no more than an inch in diameter, should be openeing by the water, from the height of two hundred feet above, down to this little reservoir. The consequence might be, that the side of the mountain would burst asunder, for the pressure, under the circumstances supposed, would be equal to the weight of five thousand tons." —Comstock, 1850

Mountain Rupture

"Rupture of a Mountain.—There is no doubt, but in the operations of nature, great effects are…

"Take a piece of ivory, or any other substance that will sink in water, and weigh it accurately in the usual manner; then suspend it by a thread, or hair, in the empty cup a, and balance it. Now pour water into the cup, and it will be found that the suspended body will lose a part of its weight, so that a certain number of grains must be taken from the opposite scale, in order to make the scales balance as before the water was poured in. The number of grains taken from the opposite scale, show the weight of a quantity of water equal to the bulk of the body so suspended." —Comstock, 1850

Water Weighing

"Take a piece of ivory, or any other substance that will sink in water, and weigh it accurately in the…

"A mountain and spring, showing how the principle of the syphon operates to produce the effect described. Suppose there is a crevice, or hollow in the rock from a to b, and a narrow fissure leading from it, in the form of the syphon, b c. The water from the rill fe, filling the hollow, up to the line a d, it will then discharge itself through the syphon, and continue to run until the water is exhausted down to the l g of the syphon b, when it will cease. Then the water from the rills continuing to run until the hollow is again filled up to the same line, the syphon again begins to act, and again discharges the contents of the reservoir as before, and thus the spring p, at one moment flows with great violence and the next moment ceases entirely." —Comstock, 1850

Intermitting Spring

"A mountain and spring, showing how the principle of the syphon operates to produce the effect described.…