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A section of a human vertebra, showing structure.

Section of Vertebra

A section of a human vertebra, showing structure.

"Section of two lumbar vertebrae, showing ligaments."—Finley, 1917

Lumbar vertebrae

"Section of two lumbar vertebrae, showing ligaments."—Finley, 1917

The Human Skeleton. Labels: a, parietal bone; b, frontal; c, cervical vertebrae; d, sternum; e, lumbar vertebrae; f, ulna; g, radius; h, wrist or carpal bones; i, metacarpal bones; k, phalanges; l, tibia; m, fibula; n, tarsal bones; o, metatarsal; p, phalanges; , patella; r, femur; s, haunch (hip) bone; t, humerus; u, clavicle.

The Human Skeleton

The Human Skeleton. Labels: a, parietal bone; b, frontal; c, cervical vertebrae; d, sternum; e, lumbar…

The human clavicle bone (anterior portion of the shoulder girdle).

The Human Clavicle

The human clavicle bone (anterior portion of the shoulder girdle).

The human scapula bone (shoulder blade). Labels: 1, glenoid cavity; 2, end of the spine of scapula.

The Human Scapula

The human scapula bone (shoulder blade). Labels: 1, glenoid cavity; 2, end of the spine of scapula.

The human humerus bone, the longest and largest bone of the upper leg. Labels: a, rounded head; gt, greater tuberosity; lt, lesser tuberosity; b, groove for attachment of biceps tendon.

The Human Humerus

The human humerus bone, the longest and largest bone of the upper leg. Labels: a, rounded head; gt,…

The Ulna and Radius. Labels: 1, radius; 2, ulna; o, olecranon process, on the anterior surface of which are seen the large (gs) and the small (ls) cavities for the reception of the lower end of the humerus and of the head of the radius, respectively; h, head of radius.

The Human Ulna and Radius

The Ulna and Radius. Labels: 1, radius; 2, ulna; o, olecranon process, on the anterior surface of which…

Bones of the Wrist and Hand. Labels: m, metacarpal bones; p, phalanges; 3, bones of wrist.

The Human Wrist and Hand Bones

Bones of the Wrist and Hand. Labels: m, metacarpal bones; p, phalanges; 3, bones of wrist.

The Os Innominatum, or nameless bone, so called from bearing no resemblance to any known object, is a large irregular shaped bone, which, with its fellow of opposite side, forms the sides and front wall of the pelvic cavity. Labels: R, O, crest of ilium, just below O is seen the anterior superior spinous process; J, tuberosity of ischium; t, part of pubes, between J and T is seen the thyroid foramen: H, acetabulum, below H is seen end of ubic bone which, with its fellow of opposite side, forms the symphysis pubis.

Part of the Human Pelvic Bone

The Os Innominatum, or nameless bone, so called from bearing no resemblance to any known object, is…

The Femur (upper leg bone) is the longest, largest, and strongest bone in the skeleton. Labels: b, rounded head; n, neck; gtr, greater trochanter; ltr, lesser trochanter.

Human Femur Bone

The Femur (upper leg bone) is the longest, largest, and strongest bone in the skeleton. Labels: b, rounded…

Bones of the Ankle and Foot. Labels: m, metatarsal bones; p, phalanges; ca, os calcis, or heel bone.

Bones of the Ankle and Foot

Bones of the Ankle and Foot. Labels: m, metatarsal bones; p, phalanges; ca, os calcis, or heel bone.

Occipital bone of the human skull, inner surface. It is situated at the back and base of the skull. Labels: 9,9, and 10,10, depression for reception of lobes of brain; 11, foramen magnum.

Occipital Bone of the Human Skull

Occipital bone of the human skull, inner surface. It is situated at the back and base of the skull.…

Parietal bone of the human skull, inner surface. The parietal bones form the greater part of the sides and roof of the skull. Labels: A, parietal depression; E, furrow for ramification of arteries.

Parietal Bone of the Human Skull

Parietal bone of the human skull, inner surface. The parietal bones form the greater part of the sides…

Frontal bone of the human skull, outer surface. The frontal bone forms the forehead, roof of the orbital cavities, and the nasal cavity. Labels: 1, frontal eminence; 7, roof of orbital cavitiy; 10, orbital arch.

Frontal Bone of the Human Skull

Frontal bone of the human skull, outer surface. The frontal bone forms the forehead, roof of the orbital…

Temporal bone of the human skull. The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull. Labels: 1, squamous portion; 2, placed below external opening of auditory canal in petrous portion; 3, placed below mastoid portion; 4, placed below glenoid cavity for reception of condyle of lower jaw.

Temporal Bone of the Human Skull

Temporal bone of the human skull. The temporal bones are situated at the sides and base of the skull.…

Sphenoid bone, situated the anterior part of the base of the skull, articulating with all the other cranial bones, which it binds firmly and solidly together. Labels: a, greater wing; b, lesser wing.

Sphenoid Bone of the Human Skull

Sphenoid bone, situated the anterior part of the base of the skull, articulating with all the other…

Ethmoid bone, posterior surface. The ethmoid bone is an exceedingly light, spongy bone, placed between the two orbits and at the root of the nose, contributing to form a part of each of these cavities. Label: 2, cribriform, or perforated plate.

Ethmoid Bone of the Human Skull

Ethmoid bone, posterior surface. The ethmoid bone is an exceedingly light, spongy bone, placed between…

Lachrymal Bone. The lachrymal are the smallest and most fragile bones fo the face. They are situated at the front part of the inner wall of the orbit.

Human Lachrymal Facial Bone

Lachrymal Bone. The lachrymal are the smallest and most fragile bones fo the face. They are situated…

Vomer bone, a single bone placed at the back part of the nasal cavity, and forms part of the septum of the nasal fossae.

Human Vomer Nasal Bone

Vomer bone, a single bone placed at the back part of the nasal cavity, and forms part of the septum…

Malar (cheek) bone. The malar bones form the prominence of the cheek, and part of the outer wall and floor of the orbit.

Human Malar (Cheek) Bone

Malar (cheek) bone. The malar bones form the prominence of the cheek, and part of the outer wall and…

Palate bone. Palate bones form the back part of the roof of the mouth; part of the floor and outer wall of the nasal fossae, and a very small portion of the floor of the orbit.

Human Palate Bone

Palate bone. Palate bones form the back part of the roof of the mouth; part of the floor and outer wall…

Inferior turbinated bone, convex surface. The inferior turbinated bones are situated on the outer wall of each side of the nostril. Teach consists of a layer of thin, spongy bone, curled upon itself like a scroll.

Human Nostril Bone

Inferior turbinated bone, convex surface. The inferior turbinated bones are situated on the outer wall…

Superior maxillary bone. With it's fellow on the opposite side, it forms the whole of the upper jaw. Each bone assists in forming part of the floor of the orbit, the floor and outer wall of the nasal fossae, and the greater part of the roof of the mouth. Labels: 1, orbital surface; 2, facial surface; 3, alveolar process.

Human Maxillary (Upper Jaw) Bone

Superior maxillary bone. With it's fellow on the opposite side, it forms the whole of the upper jaw.…

Inferior Maxillary Bone (lower jaw). It is the largest and strongest bone in the face and serves for the reception of the lower teeth.

Human Maxillary (Upper Jaw) Bone

Inferior Maxillary Bone (lower jaw). It is the largest and strongest bone in the face and serves for…

The hyoid, os hyoides, or tongue bone, is an isolated, U-shaped bone lying in front of the throat, just above the Adam's apple; it supports the tongue, and give attachment to some of its numerous muscles.

Human Hyoid Bone

The hyoid, os hyoides, or tongue bone, is an isolated, U-shaped bone lying in front of the throat, just…

A cervical vertebra of the spine, inferior surface. Labels: 1, spinous process, slightly bifid; 4, transverse process; 5, articular process, inferior surface. Below the arch, or hollow portion, is seen the solid portion, or body.

Human Cervical Vertebra Bone

A cervical vertebra of the spine, inferior surface. Labels: 1, spinous process, slightly bifid; 4, transverse…

Side view of spinal column, without sacrum and coccyx. Labels: 1 to 7, cervical vertebrae; 8 to 19, dorsal vertebrae; 20 to 24, lumbar vertebrae; A, A, spinous processes; C, D, transverse processes; E, intervertebral aperture or foramen; a, atlas; 2, axis.

Human Spinal Column

Side view of spinal column, without sacrum and coccyx. Labels: 1 to 7, cervical vertebrae; 8 to 19,…

Thorax. The thorax, or chest, is an elongated conical-shaped cage, formed by the sternum and costal cartilages in front, the 12 ribs on each side, and the bodies of the 12 dorsal vertebrae behind. It contains and protects the principal organs of respiration and circulation. Labels: 1 to 12, ribs; d, d, costal cartilages; e, upper end of sternum; b, middle portion of sternum; 1 a, first dorsal vertebra; 12 a, twelfth dorsal vertebra; 7 a, seventh cervical vertebra; 1 to 7, true ribs; 8 to 12, false ribs; 11, 12, floating ribs. 10th rib is defective; it should be attached to the costal cartilage.

Human Thorax (Chest)

Thorax. The thorax, or chest, is an elongated conical-shaped cage, formed by the sternum and costal…

Sternum, front and side view. The sternum, or breast bone, is a flat narrow bone, situated in the median line in the front of the chest, and consisting, in the adult, of 3 portions.

Human Sternum Bone

Sternum, front and side view. The sternum, or breast bone, is a flat narrow bone, situated in the median…

The skull. Labels: a, nasal bone; b, superior maxillary; c, inferior maxillary; d, occipital; e, temporal; f, parietal; g, frontal bone.

Human Skull

The skull. Labels: a, nasal bone; b, superior maxillary; c, inferior maxillary; d, occipital; e, temporal;…

The skull at birth, superior suerface. The cranial bones of the infant at birth are not fullyformed and their edges are separated by membranous intervals. Labels: 1, posterior fontanelle; 2, sagital suture; 4, anterior fontanelle; A, A, bi-parietal diameter; B, B, bi-temporal diamter.

Human Skull at Birth

The skull at birth, superior suerface. The cranial bones of the infant at birth are not fullyformed…

Male pelvis (top) and female pelvis (bottom). The pelvis is stronger and more massively constructed than either the cranial or thoracic cavity. It is composed of 4 bones, the ossa innominata, forming sides and front, and the sacrum and coccyx, completing it behind. The female pelvis differs from that of the male in making it better adapted for giving birth. The most notable differences are that the female pelvis is wider in every direction, giving more room for the child to pass and shallower, which lessens the distance through which the child has to be propelled; and lastly, the bones are thinner and smoother.

Human Pelvis, Male and Female

Male pelvis (top) and female pelvis (bottom). The pelvis is stronger and more massively constructed…

A mixed articulation (slightly movable). In this form, the bony surfaces are usually joined together by broad, flattened disks of fibro-cartilage, as in the articulations between the bodies of the vertebrae. Labels: a, b, disk of fibro-cartilage; c, articular cartilage; d, bone.

Human Joint, Mixed Articulation

A mixed articulation (slightly movable). In this form, the bony surfaces are usually joined together…

A toothed, or dentated suture. This is one type of immovable articulation. It is found in the union of the cranial bones of the skull, such as the suture between the frontal and parietal bones.

Human Joint, Dentated Suture

A toothed, or dentated suture. This is one type of immovable articulation. It is found in the union…

A simple complete joint, one type of movable articulation. The synovial membrane is represented by dotted lines. They have a secreting membrane placed between their opposing surfaces, which keeps them well lubricated and capable of free movement one upon the other.

A Simple Complete Joint

A simple complete joint, one type of movable articulation. The synovial membrane is represented by dotted…

The bony and cartilaginous skeleton.

Human Skeleton, Showing Bony and Cartilage Tissue

The bony and cartilaginous skeleton.

The skeleton of the arm and leg. Labels: H, the humerus; Cd, its articular head which fits into the glenoid fossa of the scapula; U, the ulna; R, the radius; O, the olecranon; Fe, the femur; P, the patella; Fi, the fibula; T, the tibia.

Arm and Leg Skeleton

The skeleton of the arm and leg. Labels: H, the humerus; Cd, its articular head which fits into the…

The skeleton of the trunk and the limb arches seen from the front. Labels: c, clavicle; S, scapula; Oc, innominate bone attached to the side of the sacrum dorsally and meeting its fellow at the pubic symphysis in the ventral median line.

Skeleton of Trunk

The skeleton of the trunk and the limb arches seen from the front. Labels: c, clavicle; S, scapula;…

Demonstration of the movement of a pivot joint. Labels: A, arm in supination (palm uppermost); B, arm in pronation (back of hand upward). H, humerus; R, radius; U, ulna.

Arm Bones

Demonstration of the movement of a pivot joint. Labels: A, arm in supination (palm uppermost); B, arm…

The skeleton of the thorax. Labels: a, g, vertebral column; b, first rib; c, clavicle; d, third rib; i, glenoid fossa.

Thorax

The skeleton of the thorax. Labels: a, g, vertebral column; b, first rib; c, clavicle; d, third rib;…

"While his horse is going at full speed, he jumps over a rope extended across the ring, and regains his footing on the saddle without difficultly. To do this, he has only to leap straight up as he comes to the rope, for his inertia bears him along in the same direction as the horse." —Quackenbos 1859

Inertia Demonstration

"While his horse is going at full speed, he jumps over a rope extended across the ring, and regains…

"A horse without machinery can not lift a weight; but he does it readily with the aid of the simple apparatus shown [here].." —Quackenbos 1859

Pulley System

"A horse without machinery can not lift a weight; but he does it readily with the aid of the simple…

Front view of the body and outline of skeleton and covering.

Front View of the Body

Front view of the body and outline of skeleton and covering.

Back view of the body and outline of skeleton and covering.

Back View of the Body

Back view of the body and outline of skeleton and covering.

The human skeleton.

Human Skeleton

The human skeleton.

Five Dollars ($5) South Carolina currency from 1776. Image of a horse surrounded by the inscription - DOMINUM GENEROSA RECUSAT. Wood engraving, rough brown paper.

Paper Money, Five Dollars Bill, 1776

Five Dollars ($5) South Carolina currency from 1776. Image of a horse surrounded by the inscription…

1. Dentition (teeth) of man. 2. Dentition of hyena. 3. Dentition of pig. 4. Dentition of Patagonian cavy (type of rodent). 5. Section of skull of Indian elephant, showing dentition of right side. 6. Crown of upper molar of horse, showing enamal folds. 7. Grinding surface of molar of African elephant, with enamal folds. 8. Single tooth of blue shark. 9. Longitudinal section of human tooth. 1. Incisors (human); C, canines; P, premolars; M, molars. a, enamel; b, dentine; c, cement (crusta petrosa); d, pulp cavity.

Teeth of Man and Several Animal Species

1. Dentition (teeth) of man. 2. Dentition of hyena. 3. Dentition of pig. 4. Dentition of Patagonian…

The bony and cartilaginous skeleton.

The Bony and Cartilaginous Skeleton

The bony and cartilaginous skeleton.

Diagrammatic representation of a segment of the axial skeleton V, a vertebra; C, Cv, ribs articulating above with the body and transverse process of the vertebra; S, the breastbone. The lighter-shaded part between S and C is the costal cartilage.

Segment of the Axial Skeleton

Diagrammatic representation of a segment of the axial skeleton V, a vertebra; C, Cv, ribs articulating…

The human skeleton.

The Human Skeleton

The human skeleton.

The skeleton of the thorax. Labels: a, g, vertebral column; b, first rib; c, clavicle; e, seventh rib; i, glenoid fossa.

Thorax Skeleton

The skeleton of the thorax. Labels: a, g, vertebral column; b, first rib; c, clavicle; e, seventh rib;…

Leaves - compound (hand-shaped; leaflets, usually five, sometimes seven); opposite; edge toothed. Outline - of leaflet, long oval, long egg-shape, or long reverse egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - pointed. Leaflet - four to nine inches long, one to three inches wide, usually minutely downy beneath. Flowers, pale yellow. April, May. Fruit - two to two and one half inches in diameter, rounded. Husk - not prickly, but uneven. Nut - one or two in a husk, large and brown. Found - from Alleghany County, Pennsylvania, southward along the Alleghany Mountains to Northern Georgia and Alabama, and westward. General Information - A tree thirty to seventy feet high. Its wood is light and hard to split. With the other species of the same genus it is preferred, above any other American wood, for the making of artificial limbs.

Genus Aesculus, L. (Buckeye, Horse Chestnut)

Leaves - compound (hand-shaped; leaflets, usually five, sometimes seven); opposite; edge toothed. Outline…

Leaves - compound (hand-shaped; leaflets, five); opposite; edge toothed. Outline - of leaflet, oval or long oval. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - pointed. Leaflets - three to seven inches long; one and a half to three inches wide. Bark - with a disagreeable odor. Flowers - small, yellowish-white. June. Fruit - about three fourths of an inch in diameter. Husk - prickly when young. Nut - smooth. Found - along the western slopes of the Alleghany Mountains - Pennsylvania to Northern Alabama and westward. General Information - A small, ill-scented tree (eighteen to thirty-five feet high). Its wood is light and hard to split. With the other species of the same genus it is preferred, above any other American wood, for the making of artificial limbs.

Genus Aesculus, L. (Buckeye, Horse Chestnut)

Leaves - compound (hand-shaped; leaflets, five); opposite; edge toothed. Outline - of leaflet, oval…

A man is loading his horse-drawn carriage with a large pine tree.

Man with Pine Tree on Cart

A man is loading his horse-drawn carriage with a large pine tree.

The human skeleton.

Human Skeleton

The human skeleton.

A poster with important images and facts from the Heroic period (1400-1100 B.C.)

Greece Poster

A poster with important images and facts from the Heroic period (1400-1100 B.C.)

Detailed picture of how to construct a horse for a gymnasium.

Horse

Detailed picture of how to construct a horse for a gymnasium.

A harness for a horse-drawn carriage, with pieces labeled.

Harness

A harness for a horse-drawn carriage, with pieces labeled.

The skeleton of a pterodactyl, the prehistoric winged dinosaur.

Pterodactyl Skeleton

The skeleton of a pterodactyl, the prehistoric winged dinosaur.

Front view of the human skeleton.

Skeleton, Front View

Front view of the human skeleton.