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An illustration of an ancient Roman vase.

Roman Vase

An illustration of an ancient Roman vase.

An illustration of an ancient Roman oil vase.

Roman Oil Vase

An illustration of an ancient Roman oil vase.

A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and group piety. In addition to arming the Puritans to fight against later developments of the Roman Catholic tradition, these studies also led to the rediscovery of some ancient scruples.

A Puritan Soldier

A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating…

Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria, commonly called Prince Rupert of the Rhine, (17 December 1619 – 29 November 1682), soldier, inventor and amateur artist in mezzotint. He was a soldier from a young age, fighting against Spain in the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire in Germany. Aged 23, he was appointed commander of the Royalist cavalry during the English Civil War. He surrendered after the Battle of Naseby and was banished from the British Isles. He spent some time in Royalist forces in exile, first on land then at sea. He then became a buccaneer in the Caribbean. Following the restoration, Rupert returned to England, becoming a naval commander, inventor, artist and first Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. Prince Rupert died in England in 1682, aged 62.

Prince Rupert of the Rhine

Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria, commonly called Prince Rupert of the Rhine, (17…

Charles I, (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from March 27, 1625 until his execution. Charles famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. He was an advocate of the Divine Right of Kings, and many subjects of England feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. Many of his actions, particularly the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent, caused widespread opposition.

Charles I of England

Charles I, (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from…

In the war between King and Parliament (the English Civil War) the city of Hereford fell into the hands first of one party, then of the other. Once it endured a siege, and when it was taken the conquerors ran riot in the cathedral and, in their fury, caused great damage which could never be repaired. In the early years of the 18th century, Bishop Bisse (1712-21), devised a scheme to support the central tower. He also had installed an enormous altar-piece and an oak screen, and instead of restoring the Chapter House he allowed its stones to be utilized for alterations to the Bishop's Palace.

Hereford Cathedral

In the war between King and Parliament (the English Civil War) the city of Hereford fell into the hands…

All Saints Church in Wilden, Worcestershire about one mile to the north east of Stourport. It was designed by W J Hopkins with funds provided by Alfred Baldwin very close to his own home, Wilden House and one of his large iron works. It served the Baldwin family and their employees and was consecrated in 1880.

Church of All Saints, Wilden, Worcestershire

All Saints Church in Wilden, Worcestershire about one mile to the north east of Stourport. It was designed…

The Great Fire of London, a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of London from Sunday, 2 September to Wednesday, 5 September 1666, was one of the major events in the history of England. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman City Wall. It threatened, but did not reach, the aristocratic district of Westminster (the modern West End), Charles II's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, St. Paul's Cathedral, and most of the buildings of the City authorities. It is estimated that it destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the City's ca. 80,000 inhabitants.

Great Fire of London

The Great Fire of London, a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of London from…

William Sancroft (30 January 1617 – 24 November 1693), was the 79th archbishop of Canterbury. He became Dean of St. Paul's in 1664, greatly assisting with the rebuilding after the Great Fire of London, towards which he contributed £1400. In 1677, being now prolocutor of the Convocation, he was unexpectedly advanced to the archbishopric of Canterbury. He attended Charles II upon his deathbed, and "made to him a very weighty exhortation, in which he used a good degree of freedom." He crowned King James II in 1685.

Archbishop William Sancroft

William Sancroft (30 January 1617 – 24 November 1693), was the 79th archbishop of Canterbury. He became…

George I (28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714 until his death, and ruler of Hanover in the Holy Roman Empire from 1698. George was born in Lower Saxony in what is now Germany, and eventually inherited the title and lands of the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. A succession of European wars expanded his German domains during his lifetime, and in 1708 he was ratified as Prince-elector of Hanover. During George's reign the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to the modern system of Cabinet government led by a Prime Minister. Towards the end of his reign, actual power was held by Sir Robert Walpole, Great Britain's first de facto Prime Minister. George died on a trip to his native Hanover, where he was buried.

King George I of Great Britain

George I (28 May 1660 – 11 June 1727) was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1 August 1714…

An illustration of Frederick II of Prussia on horseback. Frederick II (January 24, 1712 – August 17, 1786) was a King of Prussia (1740–1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty. In his role as a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he was Frederick IV of Brandenburg. He became known as Frederick the Great and was nicknamed "Old Fritz".

Frederick II of Prussia on Horseback

An illustration of Frederick II of Prussia on horseback. Frederick II (January 24, 1712 – August 17,…

An illustration of Frederick II of Prussia and the unjust judges. Frederick II (January 24, 1712 – August 17, 1786) was a King of Prussia (1740–1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty. In his role as a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he was Frederick IV of Brandenburg. He became known as Frederick the Great and was nicknamed "Old Fritz".

Frederick II of Prussia and Judges

An illustration of Frederick II of Prussia and the unjust judges. Frederick II (January 24, 1712 –…

Edward Gibbon (April 27, 1737 - January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, <em>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</em>, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788.

Edward Gibbon

Edward Gibbon (April 27, 1737 - January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament.…

James Cardinal Gibbons (23 July 1834 - 24 March 1921) was an American prelate, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore from 1877 until his death.

James Cardinal Gibbon

James Cardinal Gibbons (23 July 1834 - 24 March 1921) was an American prelate, the Roman Catholic Archbishop…

Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (30 November 1817 – 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, archaeologist, and writer generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the 19th century. His work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1902, and was also a prominent German politician, as a member of the Prussian and German parliaments. His works on Roman law and on the law of obligations had a significant impact on the German civil code.

Theodor Mommsen

Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (30 November 1817 – 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar,…

An illustration of a roman coin (denarius). The left side represents the laurel-crowned head of Titus. The right side depicts a female sitting underneath a palm tree with helmets behind her. The Roman currency system included the denarius after 211 BC, a small silver coin, and it was the most common coin produced for circulation but was slowly debased until its replacement by the antoninianus.

Roman Coins (Denarius)

An illustration of a roman coin (denarius). The left side represents the laurel-crowned head of Titus.…

An illustration of Caesar. A politician of the populares tradition, he formed an unofficial triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus which dominated Roman politics for several years, opposed in the Roman Senate by optimates like Marcus Porcius Cato and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world to the Atlantic Ocean, and he also conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC. The collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a standoff with Pompeii and the Senate. Leading his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a civil war in 49 BC from which he became the undisputed master of the Roman world.

Julius Caesar (profile)

An illustration of Caesar. A politician of the populares tradition, he formed an unofficial triumvirate…

An illustration of a man and woman standing in typical Roman clothing. Clothing in ancient Rome generally consisted of the toga, the stola, brooches for these, and breeches. The toga, a distinctive garment of Ancient Rome, was a sash of perhaps twenty feet (6 meters) in length which was wrapped around the body and was generally worn over a tunic. The stola was the traditional garment of Roman women, corresponding to the toga that was worn by men. In ancient Rome, it was considered disgraceful for a woman to wear a toga; wearing the male garment was associated with prostitution. The stola was a long, pleated dress, worn over a tunic. A brooch (also known in ancient times as a fibula) is a decorative jewelry item designed to be attached to garments. It is usually made of metal, often silver or gold but sometimes bronze or some other material.

Man and Woman in Roman Clothing

An illustration of a man and woman standing in typical Roman clothing. Clothing in ancient Rome generally…

Isabella I (April 22, 1451 &ndash; November 26, 1504) was Queen of Castile and Le&oacute;n. She and her husband, Ferdinand II of Aragon, laid the foundation for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

Isabella of Castille

Isabella I (April 22, 1451 – November 26, 1504) was Queen of Castile and León. She and…

Frederick II (January 24, 1712 &ndash; August 17, 1786) was a King of Prussia (1740&ndash;1786) from the Hohenzollern dynasty. In his role as a prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, he was Frederick IV of Brandenburg. He became known as Frederick the Great and was nicknamed "Old Fritz".

Frederick II of Prussia

Frederick II (January 24, 1712 – August 17, 1786) was a King of Prussia (1740–1786) from…

Lesbia was the pseudonym of the lover to whom the Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus (84-54BC) dedicates a number of poems.

Lesbia

Lesbia was the pseudonym of the lover to whom the Roman poet Gaius Valerius Catullus (84-54BC) dedicates…

A sandal worn in Ancient Rome. This sandal is different from Greek sandals because it has a vamp, or upper support.

Roman Sandal

A sandal worn in Ancient Rome. This sandal is different from Greek sandals because it has a vamp, or…

John Cardinal McCloskey, (March 10, 1810 - October 10, 1885) was an American cardinal, the fifth bishop (second archbishop) of the Roman Catholic diocese of New York.

Cardinal McCloskey

John Cardinal McCloskey, (March 10, 1810 - October 10, 1885) was an American cardinal, the fifth bishop…

The scamillus is the piece of stone sitting directly underneath a column.

Scamillus

The scamillus is the piece of stone sitting directly underneath a column.

At Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on December 23, 1783, he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, emulating the Roman general Cincinnatus, an exemplar of the republican ideal of citizen leadership who rejected power. During this period, the United States was governed under the Articles of Confederation without a President, the forerunner to the Constitution.

Washington Resigning His Commission

At Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on December 23,…

An entablature refers to the superstructure of moldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of classical architecture, and are commonly divided into the architrave&mdash;the supporting member carried from column to column, pier or wall immediately above; the frieze&mdash;an unmolded strip that may or may not be ornamented; and the cornice, the projecting member below the pediment. The structure of the entablature varies with the three classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. In each, the proportions of the subdivisions (architrave, frieze, cornice) are defined by the proportions of the column in the order. In Roman and Renaissance interpretations, it is usually around a fourth of the height of the column. Variants of entablature that do not fit these models are usually derived from them.

Entablanture

An entablature refers to the superstructure of moldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns,…

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

Scutum

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

Scutum

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

Scutum

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

Scutum

The scutum was a semi-cylindrical shield used by ancient Roman legionaries.

The Temple of Edfu is an ancient Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in the city of Edfu which was known in Greco-Roman times as Apollonopolis Magna, after the chief god Horus-Apollo. It is the second largest temple in Egypt after Karnak and one of the best preserved. The temple, dedicated to the falcon god Horus, was built in the Ptolemaic period between 237 and 57 BCE.

Temple of Edfu Plan

The Temple of Edfu is an ancient Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in the city of…

The Temple of Edfu is an ancient Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in the city of Edfu which was known in Greco-Roman times as Apollonopolis Magna, after the chief god Horus-Apollo. It is the second largest temple in Egypt after Karnak and one of the best preserved. The temple, dedicated to the falcon god Horus, was built in the Ptolemaic period between 237 and 57 BCE.

Temple of Edfu Section

The Temple of Edfu is an ancient Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in the city of…

The Tower of the Winds, also called horologion (timepiece), is an octagonal Pentelic marble clocktower on the Roman agora in Athens. The structure features a combination of sundials, a water clock and a wind vane. It was supposedly built by Andronicus of Cyrrhus around 50 BC, but according to other sources might have been constructed in the 2nd century BC before the rest of the forum.

Tower of the Winds

The Tower of the Winds, also called horologion (timepiece), is an octagonal Pentelic marble clocktower…

The Corinthian order is one of the Classical orders of Greek and Roman architecture, characterized by a slender fluted column and an ornate capital decorated with acanthus leaves and scrolls. Although of Greek origin, the Corinthian order was seldom used in Greek architecture.

Greek Corinthian Order

The Corinthian order is one of the Classical orders of Greek and Roman architecture, characterized by…

The Ionic order column originated in the mid-6th century BC in Ionia. The Ionic order column was being practiced in mainland Greece in the 5th century BC. The first of the great Ionic temples was the Temple of Hera on Samos, built about 570 BC-560 BC by the architect Rhoikos. It stood for only a decade before it was leveled by an earthquake. It was in the great sanctuary of the goddess: it could scarcely have been in a more prominent location for its brief lifetime. A longer-lasting 6th century Ionic temple was the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Roman Ionic Order

The Ionic order column originated in the mid-6th century BC in Ionia. The Ionic order column was being…

An arcade is a passage or walkway covered over by a succession of arches or vaults supported by columns. An engaged column is a column embedded in a wall and partly projecting from the surface of the wall, sometimes defined as semi or three-quarter detached. In Roman architecture they exist in profusion, most commonly embedded in the cella walls of pseudoperipteral buildings. Engaged columns are distinct from pilasters, which by definition are ornamental and not structural.

Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns

An arcade is a passage or walkway covered over by a succession of arches or vaults supported by columns.…

A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault, is an architectural element formed by the extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance. The curves are typically circular in shape, lending a semi-cylindrical appearance to the total design. The barrel vault is the simplest form of a vault: effectively a series of arches placed side by side, i.e., one after another.

Barrel Vault

A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault, is an architectural element formed by…

A groin vault or groined vault (also sometimes known as a double barrel vault or cross vault) is produced by the intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults. The word groin refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults; cf. ribbed vault. Sometimes the arches of groin vaults are pointed instead of round.

Groin Vault

A groin vault or groined vault (also sometimes known as a double barrel vault or cross vault) is produced…

A, brickwork; B, tufa ashlar; R, opus reticulatum; I, opus incertum.

Roman Wall Masonry

A, brickwork; B, tufa ashlar; R, opus reticulatum; I, opus incertum.

A coffer in architecture, is a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling, soffit or vault. A series of these sunken panels were used as decoration for a ceiling or a vault. The stone coffers of the ancient Greeks and Romans are the earliest surviving examples.A, from Palmyra; B, Basilica of Constantine.

Roman Ceiling Panels

A coffer in architecture, is a sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon in a ceiling,…

The circular so-called "Temple of Vesta" at Tivoli, of the early first century BCE, has been widely admired since the Renaissance. Its ruins sit on the acropolis of the Etruscan and Roman city of Tibur (now Tivoli), overlooking the falls of the Aniene in a picturesque narrow gully.

Temple of Vesta, Tivoli

The circular so-called "Temple of Vesta" at Tivoli, of the early first century BCE, has been widely…

The Temple of Venus and Roma (Latin: Templum Veneris et Romae) was the largest known temple in Ancient Rome. Located at the far east side of the Forum Romanum near the Colosseum, it was dedicated to the goddesses Venus Felix (Venus the Bringer of Good Fortune) and Roma Aeterna (Eternal Rome). The architect was the emperor Hadrian. Construction of the temple began in 121. It was officially inaugurated by Hadrian in 135, and finished in 141 under Antoninus Pius. Damaged by fire in 307, it was restored with alterations by the emperor Maxentius.

Temple of Venus and Roma, Plan

The Temple of Venus and Roma (Latin: Templum Veneris et Romae) was the largest known temple in Ancient…

The forum was built on the order of Emperor Trajan with the spoils of war from the conquest of Dacia, which ended in 106. The Forum was built from a vast stoa-lined piazza measuring 660 by 390 feet (200 &times; 120 m) with exedrae on two sides. The Basilica Ulpia was an ancient Roman civic building located in the Forum of Trajan. It was named after Roman emperor Trajan whose full name was Marcus Ulpius Traianus.

Forum and Basilica of Trajan

The forum was built on the order of Emperor Trajan with the spoils of war from the conquest of Dacia,…

The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or therm&aelig;, built in Rome between AD 212 and 216, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla. The extensive ruins of the baths have become a popular tourist attraction.

Thermæ of Caracalla, Plan of Central Block

The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermæ, built in Rome between AD 212 and 216,…

The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Colosseum, Half Plan

The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium,…

Diocletian's Palace (Dioklecijanova palaca in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian at the turn of the fourth century AD. The Latin name of the city, Spalatum, was drawn from that of the nearby Greek colony Aspalathos, which in turn was named after a white thorn common in the area. Contrary to popular belief, it has nothing to do with the Latin word for palace, palatium.

Palace of Diocletian, Plan

Diocletian's Palace (Dioklecijanova palaca in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built…

"Semi-columns (Roman). Engaged columns of the Maison Carr&eacute;e, N&icirc;mes, France." -Whitney, 1911

Semi-Columns

"Semi-columns (Roman). Engaged columns of the Maison Carrée, Nîmes, France." -Whitney,…

Christian architecture is Syria diverged from Roman traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of the domestic architecture of central Syria.

Church at Kalb Louzeh

Christian architecture is Syria diverged from Roman traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total…

A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square room or an elliptical dome over a rectangular room. The pendentives, which are triangular segments of a sphere, taper to points at the bottom and spread at the top to establish the continuous circular or elliptical base needed for the dome. In masonry the pendentives thus receive the weight of the dome, concentrating it at the four corners where it can be received by the piers beneath.

Diagram of Pendentives

A pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a circular dome over a square room or…

In the Giraud Palace and the great Palazzo della Cancelleria, pilasters appear in the external composition, and all the details of doors and windows betray the results of classic study, as well as the refined taste of their designer.

Façade of the Giraud Palace, Rome

In the Giraud Palace and the great Palazzo della Cancelleria, pilasters appear in the external composition,…

An illustration of a roman diptych with gold leaf. A diptych is any object with two flat plates attached at a hinge.

Leaf of Roman Diptych

An illustration of a roman diptych with gold leaf. A diptych is any object with two flat plates attached…

The sestertius or sesterce was an ancient silver coin during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.

Sestertius

The sestertius or sesterce was an ancient silver coin during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.

An illustration of a Roman cithara.

Roman Cithara

An illustration of a Roman cithara.

The ground plan of the baths of Pompeii, Italy.

Baths of Pompeii

The ground plan of the baths of Pompeii, Italy.

The ground plan of the baths of Caracalla. The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae, built in Rome between AD 212 and 216, during the reign of the Emperor Caracalla.

Baths of Caracalla

The ground plan of the baths of Caracalla. The Baths of Caracalla were Roman public baths, or thermae,…

Four stringils in which the hollow for collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed.

Four Stringils

Four stringils in which the hollow for collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed.

An illustration of a Roman standard.

Roman Standard

An illustration of a Roman standard.

An illustration of a Roman standard.

Roman Standard

An illustration of a Roman standard.

The Temple of Edfu is an ancient Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in the city of Edfu which was known in Greco-Roman times as Apollonopolis Magna, after the chief god Horus-Apollo. It is the second largest temple in Egypt after Karnak and one of the best preserved. The temple, dedicated to the falcon god Horus, was built in the Ptolemaic period between 237 and 57 <small>BCE</small>. A, pylon; B, obelisks; C, entrance; D, temple courts; E, porticus; F, pronaos (court with colonnades); G, naos; H, sanctarium.

Temple of Edfu, Floor Plan

The Temple of Edfu is an ancient Egyptian temple located on the west bank of the Nile in the city of…

The so-called Attic base is the form which most frequently occurs; and consists of two tori separated by a cavetto, the whole having a plinth as basis; the upper torus being less high and projecting than the lower.

Attic Base in the Temple of Minerva Polias

The so-called Attic base is the form which most frequently occurs; and consists of two tori separated…