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"It is apparent by turning the crank, C, the wheel will revolve, for the thread of the screw passes between the cogs of the wheel. By means of an axle, through the centre of this wheel, like the common wheel and axle, this becomes an axceedingly powerful machine, but...is slow." -Comstock 1850

Screw and Wheel

"It is apparent by turning the crank, C, the wheel will revolve, for the thread of the screw passes…

"The large wheel a, is supposed to stand over the well, and b, a smaller wheel, is fixed in the water. The rope is extended between the two wheels, and rises on one side in a perpendicular disrection. On turning the wheel by the crank d, the water is brought up by the friction of the rope." -Comstock 1850

Rope Machine

"The large wheel a, is supposed to stand over the well, and b, a smaller wheel, is fixed in the water.…

"This wheel of all others, gives the greatest power with the least quantity of water, and is, therefore, generally used when circumstances will permit, or where there is a considerable fall, with a limited quantity of water." -Comstock 1850

Overshot Wheel

"This wheel of all others, gives the greatest power with the least quantity of water, and is, therefore,…

"Thus constructed, this wheel moves equally well whether the water acts on one or the other side of the boards, and hence is employed for tide wheels, which turn in one direction when the tide is going out, and in the other when it is coming in." -Comstock 1850

Undershot Wheel

"Thus constructed, this wheel moves equally well whether the water acts on one or the other side of…

"In this water, instead of passing over, or entirely under the wheel, is delievered in the direction of its centre. This is one of the most common wheels, and is employed where there is not a sufficient fall for the construction of the overshot kind." -Comstock 1850

Breast Wheel

"In this water, instead of passing over, or entirely under the wheel, is delievered in the direction…

"The wheel and axle consists of a wheel united to a cylinder in such a way that they may turn together on a common axis. It is a modified lever of the first or second class." -Avery 1895

Wheel and Axle with Rope and Bucket

"The wheel and axle consists of a wheel united to a cylinder in such a way that they may turn together…

"Considered as a lever, the fulcrum is at the common axis, while the arms of the lever are the radii of the wheel and of the axle. The usual arrangement is to take ac, the radius of the wheel, as the power arm, and bc , the radius of the axle, as the weight arm." -Avery 1895

Wheel and Axle

"Considered as a lever, the fulcrum is at the common axis, while the arms of the lever are the radii…

"...the mechanical advantage of this machine (wheel and axle) equal the ratio between the radii, diameters, or circumferences of the wheel and of the axle." -Avery 1895

Wheel and Axle with Rope and Bucket

"...the mechanical advantage of this machine (wheel and axle) equal the ratio between the radii, diameters,…

"The power is generally applied by a wheel or a lever, and moves through the circumfrence of a circle. The distance between the two consecutive turns of any on continuous thread, measured in the direction of the axis of the screw, is called the pitch of the screw." -Avery 1895

Screw with Lever Arm

"The power is generally applied by a wheel or a lever, and moves through the circumfrence of a circle.…

"A combination of wheels and axles, as shown, is called a train. The wheel in a train to which motion is imparted from a wheel on another shaft by such means as a belt or gearing, is called the driven wheel or follower; the hweel that imparts the motion is called the driver." —Hallock 1905

Train

"A combination of wheels and axles, as shown, is called a train. The wheel in a train to which motion…

"AB is a wheel with a broad rim, or felly. A wine glass partly filled with water is placed on the inner surface of the felly, and the wheel is then made to revolve rapidly round the axle O. If the proper amount of motion be communicated to the wheel, not only will the wine glass keep its place on the felly, but the water also will remain in it..." —Quackenbos 1859

Centrifugal Force Demonstration

"AB is a wheel with a broad rim, or felly. A wine glass partly filled with water is placed on the inner…

"We have an example of resultant motion in a boat which a person attempts to row north across a river, while the tide carries it to the east. Each force produces the same effect as if acted alone; and the boatman, when he has crossed the river, will find himself neither due north nor due east of the point from which he started, but northeast of it." —Quackenbos 1859

Resultant Motion with Boat

"We have an example of resultant motion in a boat which a person attempts to row north across a river,…

"Let, for instance, the force used by the boatman be twice as great as that of the tide. Then by the time he would reach B, the tide would have carried his boat one-half of that distance, to D." —Quackenbos 1859

Resultant Motion with Boat

"Let, for instance, the force used by the boatman be twice as great as that of the tide. Then by the…

"The wheel and axle is simply a revolving lever of the first kind. One application of the lever can not move a body any great distance; but, by means of the wheel and axle, the action of the lever is continued uninterruptedly." —Quackenbos 1859

Wheel and Axle

"The wheel and axle is simply a revolving lever of the first kind. One application of the lever can…

"Instead of having a rope attached to it, the wheel is often provided with projecting pins, as shown, to which the hand is directly applied." —Quackenbos 1859

Wheel and Axle with Spokes

"Instead of having a rope attached to it, the wheel is often provided with projecting pins, as shown,…

"A still more common form, much used in drawing water from wells and loaded buckets from mines, is shown [here]. Instead of a wheel, we have here a winch, or handle, attached to the axle." —Quackenbos 1859

Winch

"A still more common form, much used in drawing water from wells and loaded buckets from mines, is shown…

"[This illustration] shows a third form of the wheel and axle. Here the axle A is vertical, instead of horizontal. A bar inserted in its head, at the extremity of which the hand is applied, takes the place of the wheel." —Quackenbos 1859

Vertical Wheel and Axle

"[This illustration] shows a third form of the wheel and axle. Here the axle A is vertical, instead…

"The capstan is a familiar example of this form of wheel and axle. It is used by sailors for warping vessels up to a dock, raising anchors, &c.; and consists of a massive piece of timber, round which a rope passes. This is surmounted by a circular head, perforated with holes, into which, when the instrument is to be used, strong bars, called handspikes, are inserted." —Quackenbos 1859

Capstan

"The capstan is a familiar example of this form of wheel and axle. It is used by sailors for warping…

"[The pulley] consists of a wheel with a grooved circumference, over which a rope passes, and an axis or pin, round which the wheel may be made to turn. A represents the block, B the axis, C the wheel." —Quackenbos 1859

Pulley

"[The pulley] consists of a wheel with a grooved circumference, over which a rope passes, and an axis…

"[This illustration] represents a moveable pulley. A is the wheel. One end of the rope is fastened to a support at D, while the power is applied to the other at P." —Quackenbos 1859

Moveable Pulley

"[This illustration] represents a moveable pulley. A is the wheel. One end of the rope is fastened to…

"Features six movable pulleys aligned on the same axis. This pulley was invented to reduce the friction of each block to a single wheel." —Quackenbos 1859

White's Pulley

"Features six movable pulleys aligned on the same axis. This pulley was invented to reduce the friction…

"The threads of the screw act upon the teeth cut into the wheel. As the screw turns, each thread catches a tooth on the wheel to rotate the wheel indefinitely." —Quackenbos 1859

Endless Screw

"The threads of the screw act upon the teeth cut into the wheel. As the screw turns, each thread catches…

"The lock C is a controllable compartment with raise-able and lower-able gates D and E. Since water always finds its level, by raising and lowering the gates, two separate water levels can be maintained and still provide water transportation through the lock." —Quackenbos 1859

Locks

"The lock C is a controllable compartment with raise-able and lower-able gates D and E. Since water…

"Waterwheel where the lowest flat-board is submerged in the running water. The water is often given its power from a slight inclination. This wheel is also often powered by the running water issued by a dam." —Quackenbos 1859

Undershot Wheel

"Waterwheel where the lowest flat-board is submerged in the running water. The water is often given…

"Wheel consists of flaps in the shape of buckets that are equally spaced. As water flows onto the wheel, the weight of the water in the buckets causes the wheel to rotate and empty the buckets." —Quackenbos 1859

Overshot Wheel

"Wheel consists of flaps in the shape of buckets that are equally spaced. As water flows onto the wheel,…

"Water enters the wheel halfway up and flows against the slots on the wheel. The wheel rotates with the flow of the water and the stream continues out the bottom of the wheel." —Quackenbos 1859

Breast Wheel

"Water enters the wheel halfway up and flows against the slots on the wheel. The wheel rotates with…

"Water enters through J and K following into G and H compartments. Afterwards the water is forced into the outside compartments thus turning the wheel." —Quackenbos 1859

Water Turbine

"Water enters through J and K following into G and H compartments. Afterwards the water is forced into…

"Used to raise water with a continuous chain with evenly spaced circular plates. The plates exactly fit a hollow tube, G and H. When the wheels I, J are turned, they move the chain which carries water up the pipe into the collection reservoir." —Quackenbos 1859

Chain Pump

"Used to raise water with a continuous chain with evenly spaced circular plates. The plates exactly…

"As the mercury rises and lowers in the barometer, the float F turns the index, I. Index I points to the correct reading on the graduated scale S." —Quackenbos 1859

Wheel Barometer

"As the mercury rises and lowers in the barometer, the float F turns the index, I. Index I points to…

Lefthand single thread worm and worm wheel.

Worm And Worm Wheel

Lefthand single thread worm and worm wheel.

Righthand single thread worm and worm wheel.

Worm And Worm Wheel

Righthand single thread worm and worm wheel.

Geometric pattern for translation and rotation exercises.

Geometric Block Pattern 67

Geometric pattern for translation and rotation exercises.

"Two motors are usually employed on each [electric railway] car, and the connection between them and the rails is made through the car-wheels and axles, and between them and the line wire, by a wire connected with a wheel called the <em>trolley.,/i> which is carried at the end of a pole supported on the car roof...." -Atkinson 1903

Electric Railway

"Two motors are usually employed on each [electric railway] car, and the connection between them and…

The lower part of the large muscle that raises the heel during walking. P, the muscle, makes up most of the bulk of the calf of the leg. The weight of the body rests upon the bone W. In walking, as we raise the body in taking a step, we do it first by raising the heel with the muscle P, the pressure being on the ball of the foot, F. This muscle does here with the weight of the body what the muscles of your arms do to the load in a wheel barrow when you raise it by the handles.

Heel Muscle

The lower part of the large muscle that raises the heel during walking. P, the muscle, makes up most…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and often doubly toothed. Outline - oval or egg-shaped, or inversely egg-shaped; always one-sided. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded, or slightly heart-shaped, rarely pointed. Leaf/Stem - about one quarter inch long. Buds - smooth. Leaf - usually two to five inches long, and one and a half to two and a half wide; somewhat downy when young, afterward roughish below; above, either rough in one direction, or (especially if taken from the ends of the long branches) smooth and shining. Ribs - prominent and straight. Bark - of the branches not marked with "corky ridges"; branchlets, smooth. Seeds - flat egg-shaped or oval, winged and fringed all around. Last of May. Found - northward to Southern Newfoundland; southward to Florida; westward to the Black Hills of Dakota. Toward the western and southwestern limits it is found only in the river-bottom lands. General Information - One of the very noblest of American trees, eighty feet or more in height, and of strong and graceful proportions. The trunk divides at a slight angle into two or three arching limbs, and these again into many smaller curving and drooping branches. The trunk and the larger branches are often heavily fringed with short and leafy boughs. The tree is widely cultivated. Streets planted with it become columned and arched like the aisles of a Gothic cathedral. The wood is hard, and very tough from the interlacing of its fibers. It is used in making saddle-trees and for wheel-hubs, and is now largely exported to England to be used in boat- and ship-building. One day I found four men in a stone quarry, working with iron bars and rollers over a heavy flat slab. They were moving the stone slowly up a narrow plant into their cart. "John, " I said, "I would not think that board could hold a stone of such weight two minutes. Is it hickory?" "No sir, " said John, " that's an elm plank; it can't break." It did not break. It was one of the woods which the Deacon used in building his famous "one-hoss shay": So the deacon inquired of the village folk Where he could find the strongest oak, That count n't be split nor bent nor broke, - That was for spokes and floor and sills; He sent for lancewood to make the thills; The cross-bars were ash, from the straightest trees; The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese, But lasts like iron for thing like these; The hubs of logs from the Settler's Ellum; - Last of its timber, - they could n't sell 'em, Never an axe had seen their chips, And the wedges flew from between their lips, Their blunt ends frizzled like celery-tips;" --Oliver Wendell Holmes

Genus Ulmus, L. (Elm)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharply and often doubly toothed. Outline - oval or egg-shaped, or…

Leaves - simple; alternate (often alternate in pairs); edge very sharply, unequally, and rather coarsely toothed. Outline - egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - narrowed and heart-shaped. Leaf/Stem - short and downy. Leaf - about four by two and one fourth inches, or often smaller, thin' downy when young, becoming smooth. Ribs - straight. Bark - outer bark of trunk thin and a silvery yellow, and separating into narrow ribbons curling outwards at the ends. The twigs and the bark are sweet-tasting and aromatic, but less so than in the "Sweet Birch." Found - in moist woods, along the Alleghany Mountains, in Delaware and Southern Minnesota, and northward into Canada. General Information - A tree forth to eight feet or often more in height; one of the largest and most valuable non-evergreen trees of New England and Canada. Its hard, close-grained wood is largely used for fuel, in making furniture, button-moulds, wheel-hubs, pill-boxes, etc.

Genus Betula, L. (Birch)

Leaves - simple; alternate (often alternate in pairs); edge very sharply, unequally, and rather coarsely…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (lobes entire). Outline - rounded. Apex - cut almost squarely across, with a shallow hollow, giving a square look to the upper half of the leaf. Base - usually heart-shape. Leaf - three to five inches long and wide; very smooth; with four to six lobes (two lobes at the summit; at the sides two, or two large and two small). Bark - of trunk, dark ash-color and slightly rough. Flowers - four to six inches across, greenish-yellow, marked within with orange, somewhat tulip-like, fragrant solitary. May, June. Found - from Southwestern Vermont to Michigan, southward and westward. Its finest growth is in the valley of the lower Wabash River and along the western slopes of the Alleghany Mountains. General Information - Among the largest and most valuable of the North American Trees. It is usually seventy to one hundred feet high, often much higher, with a straight, clear trunk, that divides rather abruptly at the summit into coarse and straggling branches. The wood is light and soft, straight grained, and easily worked, with the heart wood light yellow or brown, and the thin sap wood nearly white. It is very widely and variously used - for construction, for interior finish, for shingles, in boat-building, for the panels of carriages, especially in the making of wooden pumps and wooden ware of different kings. I asked a carpenter: "Hope, is n't it the tulip wood (which you call poplar*) that the carriage-makers use for their panels?" "Yes, and the reason is, because it shapes so easily. If you take a panel and wet one side, and hold the other side to a hot stove-pipe, the piece will just hub the pipe. It's the best wood there is for panelling." "Of all the trees of North America with deciduous leaves, the tulip tree, next to the buttonwood, attains the amplest dimensions, while the perfect straightness and uniform diameter of its trunk for upwards of forty feet, the more regular disposition of its branches, and the greater richness of its foliage, give it a decided superiority over the buttonwood and entitle it to be considered as one of the most magnificent vegetables of the temperate zone." - Michaux. *The name should be dropped. The tree is not a poplar. The tulip tree was very highly esteemed by the ancients; so much so that in some of their festivals they are said to have honored it by pouring over its roots libations of wine.

Genus Liriodendron, L. (Tulip Tree)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (lobes entire). Outline - rounded. Apex - cut almost squarely…

Leaves - simple; indeterminate in position because of their smallness and closeness. They are scale-like, somewhat egg-shape, overlapping each other, and closely pressed in four rows up and down the very flat branchlets. Each leaf has at its centre a raised gland, easily distinguished if held between the eye and the light. Bark - fibrous. The "spray" (formed from the flat branchlets) is itself flat and very delicate and of a dull green. Cones - about one fourth of an inch in diameter, round, variously placed, compact, purplish as they ripen; opening when ripe toward the centre line (i. e., not toward its base). Scales - fleshy, shield-shaped and apparently fastened near their centres, with the edge several-pointed, and with a sharp point or knob in the centre. Seeds - usually four to eight under each scale, oval, with wide wings at the sides. Found - in deep, cold swamps (filling them densely and exclusively), from Southern Maine along the coast to Florida, and along the Gulf coast to Mississippi. General Information - A tapering evergreen tree, thirty to seventy feet high, with light and durable wood, largely used in boat-building, for wooden-ware, shingles, etc.

Genus Chamaecyparis, Spach. (White Cedar)

Leaves - simple; indeterminate in position because of their smallness and closeness. They are scale-like,…

"A waterwheel which the water enters and leaves at all points on its circumference." -Foster, 1921

Turbine Wheel

"A waterwheel which the water enters and leaves at all points on its circumference." -Foster, 1921

An image of the overshot wheel that operates machinery by water power, receiving water at the top.

Water Wheel

An image of the overshot wheel that operates machinery by water power, receiving water at the top.

An image of the breast wheel that operates machinery by water power, receiving water opposite the axle.

Water Wheel

An image of the breast wheel that operates machinery by water power, receiving water opposite the axle.

"A small wheel turning upon an axis." -Foster, 1921

Pulley

"A small wheel turning upon an axis." -Foster, 1921

A brother, sister, and baby create a pretend sail boat out of a laundry basket and linens.

Children Play Sailing

A brother, sister, and baby create a pretend sail boat out of a laundry basket and linens.

"The map measurer is an instrument specially designed for quickly measuring distances or lines on a map. It consists of a dial case, handle, and a small wheel or roller." -U.S. Chief of Engineers

Map Measurer

"The map measurer is an instrument specially designed for quickly measuring distances or lines on a…

Hunting waterfowl.

Hunting Waterfowl

Hunting waterfowl.

"Spicules of Holothurians. The series 1-6 shows stages in the development of an anchor and a plate in a Synapta. The series A-E shows stages in the development of a wheel in Chiridota, a synaptid." -Thomson, 1916

Holothurian Spicules

"Spicules of Holothurians. The series 1-6 shows stages in the development of an anchor and a plate in…

Brawl among Egyptian boatmen. Carving from the tomb of Ptah-hetep during the Pyramid age.

Egyptian Boatmen Fighting

Brawl among Egyptian boatmen. Carving from the tomb of Ptah-hetep during the Pyramid age.

"Wheel-shaped corolla of potato." -Bergen, 1896

Potato Flower

"Wheel-shaped corolla of potato." -Bergen, 1896

Canoes.

Canoes

Canoes.

"A Persian boat (as shown on old monuments)." -Foster, 1921

Persian Boat

"A Persian boat (as shown on old monuments)." -Foster, 1921

A Chinese trading ship.

Chinese Trading Ship

A Chinese trading ship.

"The modern system of cotton manufacture dates no further back than back 1760. Prior the mechanical inventions of Hargeaves, Arkwright, Crompton and Cartwright, the arts of spinning and weaving were entirely domestic, and the instruments of manipulation much the same as those which had been in use in the East for centuries before." -Lupton

The Spinning Jenny

"The modern system of cotton manufacture dates no further back than back 1760. Prior the mechanical…

" The most singular of all the star fishes is the splendid Astrophyton. Its center is not unlike the gorgeous appearance of a Chinese wheel, but what a curious tie of twisting and twining tentacles." -Lupton

Singular Star Fish

" The most singular of all the star fishes is the splendid Astrophyton. Its center is not unlike the…

Successive Stages of Earthenware Vessel on the Potter's Wheel.

Successive Stages of Earthenware Vessel

Successive Stages of Earthenware Vessel on the Potter's Wheel.

A straight or slightly curved metallic bar, with teeth n one of its edge, adapted to work into the teeth of a wheel or pinion, for the purpose of converting a circular into a rectilinear motion or vice versa.

Machinery Rack

A straight or slightly curved metallic bar, with teeth n one of its edge, adapted to work into the teeth…

A wheel with pointed and angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a reciprocating into a rotatory motion on the shaft to which it is fixed, or for admitting of circular motion in one direction only, as in a winch.

Ratchet Wheel

A wheel with pointed and angular teeth, against which a ratchet abuts, used either for converting a…

Illustrations showing the six mechanical powers: lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw.

Simple Machines

Illustrations showing the six mechanical powers: lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge,…

This table wheel would be used to practice the six tables. The teacher would rapidly point to the surrounding numbers and the students would enter. This can be done for addition or multiplication tables.

Table Wheel

This table wheel would be used to practice the six tables. The teacher would rapidly point to the surrounding…

A circular window, divided into compartments by mullions and tracery radiating from a centre, also called Catharine-wheel, and marigold-window.

Rose Brickwork Window

A circular window, divided into compartments by mullions and tracery radiating from a centre, also called…

A piece of cloth or tissue of some kind spread to the wind to impel or assist in impelling a vessel through the water.

Ship Sails

A piece of cloth or tissue of some kind spread to the wind to impel or assist in impelling a vessel…