ClipArt ETC
"Skull and teeth of Bennett's Kangaroo (Macropus bennettii). i1, i2, i3, first second and third upper incisors; pm, second or posterior premolar (the first having been already shed); m1, m2, m3, m4, the four true molars. The last, not fully developed, is nearly concealed by the ascending ramus of the jaw." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Bennett's Kangaroo

"Skull and teeth of Bennett's Kangaroo (Macropus bennettii). i1, i2, i3, first second and third upper…

"Skull and teeth of Gray's Rat Kangaroo (Bellongia grayii). c, upper canine tooth. i1, i2, i3, first, second, and third upper incisors; pm, second or posterior premolar (the first having been already shed); m1, m2, m3, m4, the four true molars." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Gray's Rat Kangaroo

"Skull and teeth of Gray's Rat Kangaroo (Bellongia grayii). c, upper canine tooth. i1, i2, i3, first,…

"The internal structure of the lion, except in slight details, resembles that of the other Felidae, the whole organization being that of an animal modified to fulfil, in the most perfect degree yet attained, an active, predaceous mode of existence." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1910

Lion Skull

"The internal structure of the lion, except in slight details, resembles that of the other Felidae,…

An irregular saw-toothed or pinnately incised with the lobes or teeth hooked backwards.

Runcinate Leaf

An irregular saw-toothed or pinnately incised with the lobes or teeth hooked backwards.

A cat having extremely long upper canine teeth.

Saber-Toothed Cat

A cat having extremely long upper canine teeth.

"System of Wheels.—As the wheel and axle is only a modification of the simple lever, so a system of wheels acting on each other, and transmitting the power to the resistance, is only another form of the compound lever. The first wheel a, by means of the teeth, or cogs, around its axle, moved the second wheel, b, with a force equal to that of a lever, the long arm of which extends from the center to the circumference of the wheel, where the power p is suspended, and the short arm from the same center to the ends of the cogs. The dotted line c, passing through the center of the wheel a, shows the position of the lever, as the wheel now stands." —Comstock, 1850

System of Wheels

"System of Wheels.—As the wheel and axle is only a modification of the simple lever, so a system…

"The piston rods are furnished with racks, or teeth, and are worked by the toothed wheel a, which is turned backwards and forwards, by the lever and handle b. The exhaustion pipe c, leads to the plate on which the receiver stants. The valves v, n, u, and m, all open upwards." —Comstock, 1850

Air Pump

"The piston rods are furnished with racks, or teeth, and are worked by the toothed wheel a, which is…

"A self-acting screw-cutting lathe with double-geared headstock, of a type now well established, the arrangements for obtaining and varying this traversing motion may be observed. A steel leading screw runs along the front of the lathe bed, and with it the slide rest can be connected at pleasure. Two or more change wheels, properly proportioned as to the number of their teeth, connect the head of the screw with the hinder end of the mandrel." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Screw-Cutting

"A self-acting screw-cutting lathe with double-geared headstock, of a type now well established, the…

Vertical section of a tooth. 1: Enamel; 2: Dentine; 3: Pulp; 4: Blood-vessel; 5: Nerve; 6: Fibrous cement.

Tooth

Vertical section of a tooth. 1: Enamel; 2: Dentine; 3: Pulp; 4: Blood-vessel; 5: Nerve; 6: Fibrous cement.

"Upper and lower teeth of one side of the mouth of a dolphin, as an example of homodont type of dentition. The bone covering the outer side of the roots of the teeth has been removed to show the simple character." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Dolphin Teeth

"Upper and lower teeth of one side of the mouth of a dolphin, as an example of homodont type of dentition.…

The lower maxillary bone, including the bottom set of teeth.

Maxillary

The lower maxillary bone, including the bottom set of teeth.

Full permanent set of teeth, seen in front.

Teeth

Full permanent set of teeth, seen in front.

"Milkand permanent dentition of upper (I) and lower (II) jaw of the dog, with the symbols by which the different teeth are commonly designated. The third upper molar (m3) is the only tooh wanting in this animal to complete the typical heterodont mammalian dentition." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Permanent Dentition

"Milkand permanent dentition of upper (I) and lower (II) jaw of the dog, with the symbols by which the…

"Skull of Hydropotes inermis (adult male), a deer without antlers, but with largely-developed upper canine teeth." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Hydropotes Inermis

"Skull of Hydropotes inermis (adult male), a deer without antlers, but with largely-developed upper…

"Skull of Tillotherium Fodiens." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Tillotherium Fodiens

"Skull of Tillotherium Fodiens." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

"Upper Sectorial Teeth of Carnivora. I, Felis; II, Canis; III, Ursus, 1, anterior, 2, middle, and 3, posterior in position, and without distinct root, characteristic of the Ursidae." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Carnivora

"Upper Sectorial Teeth of Carnivora. I, Felis; II, Canis; III, Ursus, 1, anterior, 2, middle, and 3,…

"No part of the equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles every respect that usual Fraunhofer mounting. An adapted h is fixed on a telescope-tube, made of wood, in Fraunhofer's usual fashion. To this adapter is attached a flat circular flange h. The slides carrying the segments of the divided object-glass are mounted on a plate, which is fitted and ground to rotate smoothly on the flange h. Rotation is communicated by a pinion, turned by the handle c, which works in teeth cut on the edge of the flange h. The counterpoise w balances the head about its axis of rotation. The slides are moved by the screws a and b the divided heads of which serve to measure the separation of the segments. These screws are turned from the eye-end by bevelled wheels and pinions, the latter connected with the handles a', b'." —The Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903

Heliometer

"No part of the equatorial mounting is shown in the figure, as it resembles every respect that usual…

Magellania flavescens. Interior of ventral valve. <em>f</em>, foramen; <em>d</em>, deltidium; <em>t</em>, teeth; <em>a</em>, adductor impressions; <em>c</em>, divaricator

Brachiopoda

Magellania flavescens. Interior of ventral valve. f, foramen; d, deltidium; t,…

Caucasians typically have the lowest degree of projection of the alveolar bones which contain the teeth, a notable size prominence of the cranium and forehead region, and a projection of the midfacial region.

Caucasian

Caucasians typically have the lowest degree of projection of the alveolar bones which contain the teeth,…

Mnium cuspidatum, some of the outer and of the inner peristome (consisting of jointed teeth).

Mnium

Mnium cuspidatum, some of the outer and of the inner peristome (consisting of jointed teeth).

Summit of an open spore-case of a Moss, which has a peristome of 16 pairs of teeth.

Moss

Summit of an open spore-case of a Moss, which has a peristome of 16 pairs of teeth.

Superior maxillary bone. With it's fellow on the opposite side, it forms the whole of the upper jaw. Each bone assists in forming part of the floor of the orbit, the floor and outer wall of the nasal fossae, and the greater part of the roof of the mouth. Labels: 1, orbital surface; 2, facial surface; 3, alveolar process.

Human Maxillary (Upper Jaw) Bone

Superior maxillary bone. With it's fellow on the opposite side, it forms the whole of the upper jaw.…

Inferior Maxillary Bone (lower jaw). It is the largest and strongest bone in the face and serves for the reception of the lower teeth.

Human Maxillary (Upper Jaw) Bone

Inferior Maxillary Bone (lower jaw). It is the largest and strongest bone in the face and serves for…

The base of the skull. "The lower jaw has been removed. At the lower part of the figure is the hard palate forming the roof of the mouth and surrounded by the upper set of teeth. Above this are the paired opening of the posterior nares, and a short way above the middle of the figure is the large median foramen magnum, with the bony convexities (or occipital condyles) which articular with the atlas, on its sides. It will be seen that the part of the skull behind the occipital condyles is about equal in size to that in front of them; in an ape the portion in front of the occipital condyles would be much larger than that behind them." &mdash;Newell, 1900

Base of the Skull

The base of the skull. "The lower jaw has been removed. At the lower part of the figure is the hard…

Incisor Tooth

Incisor Tooth

Incisor Tooth

Canine Tooth (Eye Tooth).

Canine Tooth

Canine Tooth (Eye Tooth).

Biscupid tooth seen from its outer side; the inner cusp is accordingly not visible.

Bicuspid Tooth

Biscupid tooth seen from its outer side; the inner cusp is accordingly not visible.

A molar tooth

Molar Tooth

A molar tooth

Longitudinal section of a molar tooth. Labels: k, crown; n, neck; f, fangs; e, enamel; d, dentine; c, cement; p, pulp cavity.

Molar Tooth

Longitudinal section of a molar tooth. Labels: k, crown; n, neck; f, fangs; e, enamel; d, dentine; c,…

"The threads of the screw act upon the teeth cut into the wheel. As the screw turns, each thread catches a tooth on the wheel to rotate the wheel indefinitely." &mdash;Quackenbos 1859

Endless Screw

"The threads of the screw act upon the teeth cut into the wheel. As the screw turns, each thread catches…

Characteristics of the teeth. Teach tooth consists of a crown or body, projecting above the gum; root or fang, embedded within the alveolus; and the neck, the constricted portion between the grown and the fang. There are 4 classes of teeth: incisors (1), canines (2), premolars or bicuspids (3), and molars (4).

The Teeth

Characteristics of the teeth. Teach tooth consists of a crown or body, projecting above the gum; root…

Structure of the teeth. A tooth consists of 3 structures, the dentine (2), or ivory, the proper dental substance, forming the larger portion; the enamel or adamant (3), a layer covering the crown; and the cement (1), a thin layer on the surface of the fang. A central chamber, the pulp-cavity, occupies the interior, and contains the pulp, a soft, vascular, and sensitive organ, surrounded by a layer of cells, the odonto-blasts, or dentine-forming cells.

Structure of the Teeth

Structure of the teeth. A tooth consists of 3 structures, the dentine (2), or ivory, the proper dental…

Half of the teeth of the upper jaw. <em>a,a,</em> are the two front cutting teeth. <em>d,d,d</em> are the three large back teeth. c,c are two smaller grinders. At <em>b</em> is what is commonly called an "eye-tooth."

Teeth of the Upper Jaw

Half of the teeth of the upper jaw. a,a, are the two front cutting teeth. d,d,d are…

Teeth of a carnivorous animal that lives on flesh alone. The front teeth are designed for tearing, while the back teeth have sharp edges for cutting.

Teeth of a Carnivorous Animal

Teeth of a carnivorous animal that lives on flesh alone. The front teeth are designed for tearing, while…

Jaws of a tiger, showing that when the jaws are closed the ends of the teeth do not press upon the ends of the teeth that are opposite to them, but instead the teeth pass by each other. This arrangement of these long tearing teeth gives them great power in tearing flesh.

Jaws of a Tiger

Jaws of a tiger, showing that when the jaws are closed the ends of the teeth do not press upon the ends…

Teeth of an herbivore, showing the rough surface of some of these teeth. Herbivores have no tearing teeth. Instead they have two kinds of teeth, cutting teeth in the front and grinding teeth in the back. This figure shows a peculiar arrangement of the enamel, which admirably fits them to grind up the fibers of the grass in the back grinding teeth of an herbivore. The enamel is not only on the outside as it is in human teeth, rather there are ridges on it standing up in the middle of each tooth.

Teeth of an Herbivore

Teeth of an herbivore, showing the rough surface of some of these teeth. Herbivores have no tearing…

Teeth of a frugivore (fruit-eating animal). Animals that live on soft fruits do not need such grinders as grass-eating animals do, instead they have rounded teeth which serve to crush their food.

Teeth of a Frugivore

Teeth of a frugivore (fruit-eating animal). Animals that live on soft fruits do not need such grinders…

The stomach of a grain-eating bird, which has a gizzard that functions to crush the seeds to pieces since birds have no teeth to crush their food. It has on its inside two hard surfaces which rub and press against each other by muscles to grind food. At <em>b</em> is the gizzard cut open, showing two hard grinding surfaces, and at <em> a </em> above is the part from which oozes the gastric juice.

Stomach of a Bird

The stomach of a grain-eating bird, which has a gizzard that functions to crush the seeds to pieces…

The bones of the top of the head are fastened together by what are called sutures which are locked together by little teeth of bone that shoot by each other, as shown in the figure. <em>b</em> is the suture at the top of the head between the two parietal bones; <em>a a</em> is that between the two parietal bones and the frontal bone in front; and <em>c c </em> is that between the parietal bones and the bone at the back part of the cranium. These bones are not completely formed in the newborn infant.

Cranial Sutures

The bones of the top of the head are fastened together by what are called sutures which are locked together…

1. Dentition (teeth) of man. 2. Dentition of hyena. 3. Dentition of pig. 4. Dentition of Patagonian cavy (type of rodent). 5. Section of skull of Indian elephant, showing dentition of right side. 6. Crown of upper molar of horse, showing enamal folds. 7. Grinding surface of molar of African elephant, with enamal folds. 8. Single tooth of blue shark. 9. Longitudinal section of human tooth. 1. Incisors (human); C, canines; P, premolars; M, molars. a, enamel; b, dentine; c, cement (crusta petrosa); d, pulp cavity.

Teeth of Man and Several Animal Species

1. Dentition (teeth) of man. 2. Dentition of hyena. 3. Dentition of pig. 4. Dentition of Patagonian…

The temporary (baby) teeth. On the left are the teeth of the left side of the mouth viewed from the outside. On the right are teeth of the right side of the mouth viewed from the inside of the mouth.

Temporary Teeth

The temporary (baby) teeth. On the left are the teeth of the left side of the mouth viewed from the…

Permanent teeth, right side.

Permanent Teeth

Permanent teeth, right side.

Front and side views of the teeth and jaws.

Teeth and Jaws

Front and side views of the teeth and jaws.

Temporary teeth in a child aged about 4 years. The permanent teeth are seen in the process of formation in their alveoli or sockets.

Teeth of a Child

Temporary teeth in a child aged about 4 years. The permanent teeth are seen in the process of formation…

Nerves leading to the roots of the teeth.

Nerves Leading to Teeth Roots

Nerves leading to the roots of the teeth.

The base of the skull. The lower jaw has been removed. At the lower part of the figure is the hard palate forming the roof of the mouth and surrounded by the upper set of teeth

Base of the Skull

The base of the skull. The lower jaw has been removed. At the lower part of the figure is the hard palate…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge with remote, very sharp spine-like teeth, with rounded spaces between. Outline - oval. Apex and Base - pointed. Leaf - about two inches long; dark polished green above; below rather yellowish-green; thick and stiff; smooth throughout; ribs very indistinct below. Bark - light gray and smooth. Fruit - a nearly round, bright-red berry, the size of a pea. It ripens in September and continues upon the branches into the winter. Found - from Massachusetts southward near the coast to Florida, and from Southern Indiana southwest, and southward to the Gulf. General Information - The use of holly and other evergreens in religious ceremonies dates from pagan times. "Trummying of the temples with floures, boughes, and garlondes, was taken of the heathen people, whiche decked their idols and houses with suche array.: Early church councils made rules and restrictions concerning the practice - e.g., in France Christians were forbidden "to decke up their houses with lawrell, yvie, and green gouches in the Christmas season," for "Hedera est gratissima Baccho." (The ivy is most acceptable to Bacchus.)

Genus Ilex, L. (Holly)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge with remote, very sharp spine-like teeth, with rounded spaces between.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed (with the points of the teeth so incurved as to appear blunt), and often finely "crinkled." Outline - usually long oval or long egg-shape. Apex - pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed. Leaf/Stem - usually with two to five tooth-like glands near the base of the leaf. Leaf - two to five inches long; thickish; polished, and of a deep shining green above; beneath, lighter and smooth, with the middle rib sometimes downy toward the base. In the autumn the leaves turn to orange and later to pale yellow. Bark - of old trunks, blackish and rough; of young trunks and on the larger branches, reddish or purplish brown; marked with scattered lines; on young shoots, at first green or olive brown, gradually becoming darker, and sprinkled (sic) with small orange dots. Flowers - white, with short stems, closely set in a long, cylinder-shaped cluster. May, June. Fruit - about one and a quarter inches in diameter; with short stems (one and a quarter to one and a third inches ) hanging in long, close clusters from the ends of the twigs. It is nearly black when ripe, and of a pleasant flavor though somewhat bitter; it is eagerly eaten by birds. August. Found - very widely distributed north, south, and west. It reaches its finest growth on the western slopes of the Alleghany Mountains. General Information - A tree fifty to eighty feet high. The wood is light and hard, of a brown or reddish tinge, becoming darker with exposure, and of very great value in cabinet work and interior finish. It is now becoming scarce, so that stained birch is often used as a substitute. The bitter aromatic bark is used as a valuable tonic; "cherry brandy" is made from the fruit.

Genus Prunus L. (Cherry, Plum)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge toothed (with the points of the teeth so incurved as to appear blunt),…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge variable, either coarse-toothed or somewhat lobed; with the teeth or lobes sharp, and the hollows between them rounded. Outline - rounded. Apex - pointed. Base - more or less heart-shaped, squared, or rounded. Leaf/Stem - downy when young, smoothish when old; and covering the leaf-bud with its swollen base. Leaf - three and a half to eight inches wide, and usually broader than long; downy beneath when young, becoming smooth. Bark - the thin outer bark peels off each year in hard and brittle strips, leaving the branches and parts of the trunk with a mottled, whitish, polished-looking surface. Flowers - small, in compact, round balls (about one inch in diameter) like round buttons, which dry and harden, and cling to the branches by their slender stems (three to four inches long), and swing like little bells during a good part of the winter. Found - from Southern Main, southward and westward, in rich, moist soil, oftenest along streams. Its finest growth is in the bottom lands of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers. General Information - The largest of the trees of the Atlantic forests, commonly sixty to eighty feet high; along the western rivers often eighty to one hundred and thirty feet high, sometimes more, with a circumference of forty to fifty feet. A tree in Eaton, N. J., is one of the largest in the Sate. It is eighty-five feel high. At a point eight fee from the ground its circumference is fourteen feet three inches. The largest trunks are usually hollow. The wood is hard and compact, difficult to split and work, of a reddish-brown color within. Its principle use is in the making of tobacco boxes. There is a fine and somewhat noted group of these trees on the grounds of James Know, in Knoxboro, N. Y. In old times they formed a favorite camping place for the Indians in their trading expeditions. They all measure not far from three feet in diameter. The name "sycamore," though a common one, should be dropped - it belongs to another and very different tree. From a Greek word meaning broad, in reference to the breadth of the buttonwood's shade or of its leaf.

Genus Platanus, L. (Buttonwood)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge variable, either coarse-toothed or somewhat lobed; with the teeth or…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed with the teeth bristle-pointed and the hollows between rounded. Outline - very narrow oval. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - taper-pointed. Leaf - four to eight inches long, two to three inches wide; smooth above and below; with straight ribs terminating in the bristle-teeth. Bark - of trunk grayish and in young trees very smooth. Fruit - with large bristly husks. Usually there are two or three nuts pressed closely in each cell, and therefore flat on one or both sides. The nut, though smaller, is sweeter and more delicate than in the European variety, the "Spanish Chestnut." Found - from Southern Maine to Delaware and Southern Indiana; southward along the Alleghany Mountains and west to Middle Kentucky and Tennessee. Its finest growth is on the western slopes of the southern Alleghany Mountains. General Information - A tree fifty to eight feet high or more, with light, soft wood, largely used in cabinet-work, for railway ties, posts. etc. Genus Castanea, L. from the name of a town in Thessaly.

Genus Castanea, L. (Chestnut)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed with the teeth bristle-pointed and the hollows between…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with small and remote teeth. Outline - oval or egg-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - rounded. Leaf - three to six inches long, about half as wide; a very "finished" leaf; when young, fringed with soft white hairs; becoming smooth and polished; with distinct and straight unbranched side-ribs, ending in the teeth of the edge. The dead, bleached leaves often cling thickly to the branches throughout the winter. Bark - of the trunk, light gray, smooth, and unbroken. Fruit - a small four-celled prickly burr, splitting half-way to the base when ripe, and with two sweet, three-sided nuts in each shell. Found - in rich woods, Nova Scotia to Florida and westward, with it finest growth on the "bluffs" of the lower Mississippi basin. General Information - Large stately trees, with spreading branches and a delicate spray, fifty to eighty feet high. The wood is hard and very close-grained, and is used largely in the making of chairs, handles, plan-stocks, shoe-lasts, and for fuel. When the tree is not crowded, it sends out its nearly horizontal or drooping branches as low as from ten to thirty feet above the ground. Lumber-men make the distinction of "red Beech" and "White Beech," claiming that the former is harder, with a redder and thicker heart-wood. Among woodsmen and the Indians, the Beech is said to be a favorite refuge in thunder-storms. They claim that it is scarcely ever struck by lightning. Lumber-men claim a difference in the quality of trees which retain their leaves and those which shed them. "Said a neighbor to me one day: 'You might 'a knowed that beech would split hard with all the dry leaves on it,' -- and it did. That was the first I'd ever heard of the sign, but I've never known it fail since."

Genus Fagus, L. (Beech)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with small and remote teeth. Outline - oval or egg-shape.…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with the teeth somewhat thickened. Outline - narrow lance-shape. Apex - tapered-pointed. Base - pointed. Leaf - about five inches long, three quarters of an inch wide; surface with white silky hairs beneath, and often above; branches not yellow, and very brittle at the base.

Genus Salix, L. (Willow)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with the teeth somewhat thickened. Outline - narrow…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with the teeth somewhat thickened. Outline - narrow lance-shape. Apex - taper-pointed; in the young leaves often broad and rounded. Base - pointed. Leaf - small (two to three and a half inches long; about one half to five eighths of an inch wide); surface with white, silky hairs beneath and often above, especially in the young leaves. Branches - brittle at the base, smooth and shining and yellow. Blossoms - in May. Introduced - from Europe, but now found throughout the United States. Common around houses and in low grounds. General Information - Introduced from Europe, but now common around houses and in low grounds. A very large and familiar tree (fifty to eighty feet high), one of the largest of the Willows; low-branching; thick-set, of tough and rapid growth. A stake set in the ground grows readily. The silvery look of the tree (especially in a strong wind) is due to the gloss of its downy leaves. Salix from two Celtic words meaning "near" and "water." The Blue Willow (var. caerulea S.) is naturalized in Massachusetts.

Genus Salix, L. (Willow)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge sharp-toothed, with the teeth somewhat thickened. Outline - narrow…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge strongly and somewhat unevenly toothed, the teeth thickened and their points slightly incurved so as to appear somewhat blunted. Outline - narrow lance-shape. Apex - taper-pointed. Base - taper-pointed. Leaf/Stem - smooth, with two small warts on the upper side near the base of the leaf. Leaf - about five or six inches long, about seven eighths of an inch wide; dark and smooth above; lighter and smooth below (slightly silky when young). Branches - smooth, shining, and greenish; very brittle at the base, cracking off almost "at a touch." Introduced - from Europe. General Information - A tree sometimes sixty to eighty feet high, with a bush head and irregular branches. Its withes are used for basket-work. "The greene willow boughes with the leaves may vary well be brought into chambers and set about the beds of those that be sicke of agues, for they do mightily coole the heate of the aire, which thing is a wonderfull refreshing to the sicke patients." -- Gerardes' Herbal. Salix from two Celtic words meaning "near" and "water."

Genus Salix, L. (Willow)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge strongly and somewhat unevenly toothed, the teeth thickened and their…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge quite deeply wavy-toothed. Outline - reverse egg-shape or oval. Apex - blunt-pointed. Base - pointed. Leaf - five to eight inches long; smooth, and rather bright green above; whitish-downy beneath, becoming almost silvery-white; often with a rather deep hollow just below the middle, and usually abruptly spreading above; the teeth unequal, longest toward the middle of the leaf, sometimes almost long enough to be called lobes; mostly rounded at the apex, but sometimes ending in a hard point; the main ribs prominent and rust-colored. Bark - of trunk, grayish-white, dividing into large, flat scales. Acorns - usually in pairs on a stem one and a quarter to three inches long. Cup - rounded, rather thin, rough, with sharp scales; the upper scales bristle-tipped, forming a border, or sometimes a fringe, along the edge; slightly downy within. Nut - one inch or less in length, egg-shape; sweet. October. Found - from Southern Maine and the Upper St. Lawrence to Southeastern Iowa and Western Missouri, south to Delaware and along the Alleghany Mountains to Northern Georgia; along borders of streams and in swamps, in deep, rich soil. Its finest growth is in the region of the Great Lakes. General Information - A tree thirty to sixty feet high or more, with wood similar in value to that of the White Oak. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge quite deeply wavy-toothed. Outline - reverse egg-shape or oval. Apex…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge coarsely and evenly wavy-toothed. Outline - reverse egg-shape or sometimes oval. Apex - blunt-pointed. Base - rounded or slightly pointed, and often somewhat unequal. Leaf - four to seven inches long, two to four inches wide; smooth above, paler and downy beneath. Teeth - twelve to twenty-six, decreasing evenly and uniformly to the apex. Bark - of trunk, gray; furrowed up and down with continuous and often very deep furrows, with sharp ridges between. Acorns - usually in pairs on a stem about one half of an inch long, or often shorter. Cup - rounded or somewhat top-shaped, with minute scales, or warty. Nut - usually long egg-shape or long oval; one to one and one fourth inches long; brown; about one third covered by the cup; sweet. September, October. Found - from Eastern Massachusetts to New York, southward to Delaware, along the Alleghany Mountains to Alabama and westward to Central Kentucky and Tennessee. General Information - A tree forth to seventy feet in height, with strong, hard wood, largely used in fencing, or railroad ties, etc.; of less value than that of the White Oak. Its bark is very rich in tannin. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge coarsely and evenly wavy-toothed. Outline - reverse egg-shape or sometimes…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (the edges of the lobes mostly entire, but often with one to three teeth toward the ends). Outline - abruptly spreading above the middle. Base - rounded, sometimes slightly unequal. Ends of the lobes and of the few teeth, when present, sharp and bristle-tipped. Leaf - about three to six inches long; dark, dull green, and rough above; below, grayish and downy. Lobes, usually three, sometimes four or five, mostly long and narrow, especially the end one. Bark - of trunk, blackish and deeply grooved. Acorns - nearly stemless. Cup - shallow, somewhat top-shaped. Nut, about one third to one half inch long, rounded, sometimes slightly hollowed at the apex, bitter. October. Found - in sandy soils and barrens, from Long Island southward; in the Northern States, only near the coat and rare. General Information - A tree about twenty to thirty feet high in New Jersey; in the South, seventy to eighty feet; with wood of slight value except for fuel. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (the edges of the lobes mostly entire, but often with one to…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge deeply lobed (edges of lobes mostly entire, but notched and toothed towards the ends). Outline - broadly oval or broadly reverse egg-shape. Base - very short wedge-shape or squared. Ends of the lobes and of the teeth pointed and bristle-tipped. Leaf - four to eight inches long, bright green above, slightly lighter below; both surfaces smooth and shining. Lobes - five to nine, usually seven with the hollows rounded and very broad, and reaching about two thirds of the way to the middle rib. Most of the lobes widen and are deeply notched toward their end. Bark - of trunk, thick and rough, usually not quite as dark or as straight-furrowed as that of the Black Oak. The inner bark reddish. Acorns - variable. Cup - very thick, top-shaped, with large somewhat triangular egg-shaped, scales. Nut - one half to three fourths of an inch long; rounded or rounded egg-shape, about one third covered by the cup; kernel bitter and whitish. October. Found - from Southern Maine southward and westward; most common in the Middle and Southern States. General Information - A tree fifth to ninety feet high, with wood of less value than some of the other oaks. In the fall the leaves turn to a bright scarlet, or orange0scarlet, or crimson and red. They often cling throughout the winter. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge deeply lobed (edges of lobes mostly entire, but notched and toothed…

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (edge of the lobes mostly entire, but oftenest with a few teeth toward the end). Outline - reverse egg-shape or oval. Base - usually rounded. Ends of the lobes and of the few teeth, sharp and bristle-pointed, especially when young. Leaf - five to eight inches long; three to five inches wide; very variable. The two types, a and b, are often found on the same tree; b is a variation toward the leaf of the Scarlet Oak. The upper surface is roughish, becoming smoother when mature; the undersurface, rusty-downy until mid-summer, when the down mostly disappears, except from the angles of the ribs. Bark - of trunk, blackish and deeply and roughly furrowed, with an inner bark that is very thick and yellow and bitter. Acorns - variable; usually small; on short stems. Cups - thick; somewhat top-shaped; scales distinct and rather large. . Nut - one half to two thirds of an inch long; rounded; nearly one third covered by the cup. Kernel, bright yellow or orange and bitter. October. Found - from Southern Maine southward and westward. Very common, especially in the Atlantic forests. General Information - A tree fifty to a hundred feet high, with wood that is inferior to that of the White Oak. The yellow inner bark (quercitron of the shops) is a valuable dye, and is rich in tannin. Late in the autumn the leaves turn to a rich yellowish-brown or russet. It is very probable that the "Black Oak" and the "Scarlet Oak" ought to be considered as one, and described, not as species and variety, but as slightly different forms of the single species Q. coccinea. Though the most distinctive leaves of the "Black Oak" are easily recognized, often others are so nearly like those of the "Scarlet Oak" that it is not easy to distinguish between then; and the same is true of the fruit and the bark. Michaux f. says: "The only constant difference between the acorns of the Scarlet Oak and the Black Oak is in the kernel, which is white in the Scarlet Oak and yellow in the Black Oak." The Gray Oak (Q. c., ambigua, Gray) is a variety sometimes found along the northeastern boundary of the States (as far as Lake Champlain) and northward. It combines the foliage of the Red Oak with the acorn of the Scarlet Oak. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves - simple; alternate; edge lobed (edge of the lobes mostly entire, but oftenest with a few teeth…

Leaves simple; alternate; edge lobed (edges of the lobes mostly entire, but slightly toothed toward the ends). Outline - about oval. Base - short wedge-shape, or rounded. Ends of the lobes and of their one to three slight teeth, pointed and bristle-tipped. Leaf - six to nine inches long, three to five inches wide; both surfaces smooth. Lobes, nine to thirteen, usually very tapering from the base, with the hollows between them rounded and narrow and extending about half way to the middle rib. Bark - of trunk, dark, greenish-gray, and continuing smooth longer than on any other oak, never becoming as rough, for example, as that of the black oak. Acorns - large and stemless, or nearly so. Cup - flat saucer-shape, bulging, very shallow, nearly smooth, with small scales. Nut - about one inch long, somewhat egg-shape; bitter. October. Found - from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick westward and southward. Very common, especially at the North, and extending farther north than any other Atlantic oak. General Information - A tree fifty to eight feet high, with wood that at the East is porous and not durable (though often of better quality westward). It is used for clapboards and in cooperage. The leaves change in the fall to dark red. Quercus, possible from a Celtic word meaning to inquire, because it was among the oaks that the Druids oftenest practised their rites.

Genus Quercus, L. (Oak)

Leaves simple; alternate; edge lobed (edges of the lobes mostly entire, but slightly toothed toward…