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Wing of Bird; h Humerus or bone of upper arm; r and u Radius and Ulna, or bones of the forearm; c Carpus, or bones of the wrist; m Metacarpus, or bones of the root of the hand; p Phalanges, or bones of the fingers.

bones of arm

Wing of Bird; h Humerus or bone of upper arm; r and u Radius and Ulna, or bones of the forearm; c Carpus,…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves bicarotidinae normales, with two carotids, both alike." Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves laevo-carotidinae, with left carotid only." Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves bicarotidinae abnormalis, certail parrots, with two carotids, not alike." Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves conjuncto-carotidinae, with two carotids, which speedily unite in one.Bittern, both alike." Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves conjuncto-carotidinae, with two carotids, which speedily unite in one. Flamingo, left very small" Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left subclavian; rs, right subclavian; lc, left carotid; rc, right carotid. Aves conjuncto-carotidinae, with two carotids, which speedily unite in one. Cockatoo, right very small." Elliot Coues, 1884

Carotid Arteries of Birds

"h, root of aorta; 1, arch of aorta, to the right side; li, left innominate; ri, innominate; ls, left…

"Simorhynchus pusillus. Least Auk. Knob-nosed Auk. Bill small and simple. but stout for its length, scarcely higher than wide at base, rather obtuse at tip. A small knob or tubercle at the base of the culmen, which is deciduous." Elliot Coues, 1884

Least Auk Adult

"Simorhynchus pusillus. Least Auk. Knob-nosed Auk. Bill small and simple. but stout for its length,…

"Simorhynchus pusillus. Least Auk. Knob-nosed Auk. Bill small and simple. but stout for its length, scarcely higher than wide at base, rather obtuse at tip." Elliot Coues, 1884

Least Auk Adult

"Simorhynchus pusillus. Least Auk. Knob-nosed Auk. Bill small and simple. but stout for its length,…

"Another small family, characterized by the extreme length of the slender legs, and the extreme slenderness of the long acute bill, which is either straight or curved upward. Recurvirostra is a 4-toed, and full-webbed; the bill is decidedly recurved, flattened, and tapers to a needle-like point; the body is depressed; the plumage underneath is thickened as in water-birds. The species swim well. Himantopus is 3 toes, semipalmate, the bill nearly straight, and not flattened; in relative length of leg it is probably not surpassed by any bird whatsoever. " Elliot Coues, 1884

Avocets Head and Foot

"Another small family, characterized by the extreme length of the slender legs, and the extreme slenderness…

The head of the bald eagle.

Bald Eagle Head

The head of the bald eagle.

"The arrangement shown in fig. 22, where a, a, a, a, are four barbs in transverse section, viewed from the cut surfaces, with their anterior, b, b, b, b, and posterior, c, c, c, c, barbules, the former bearing the hooklets which catch over the edge of the latter." Elliot Coues, 1884

Barbs

"The arrangement shown in fig. 22, where a, a, a, a, are four barbs in transverse section, viewed from…

"Fig. 21. -A single barbule, baring barbicels and hooklets; magnified; after Nitzsch. ...barbicels (another dimin. of barba), also called cilia, or lashes (fig. 21); and hamuli, or hooklets (Lat. hamulus, a little hook; fig 21). These are simply a sort of fringe to the barbules, just as if the lower edge of the barbules were frayed out, and only differ from each other in that barbicels are plain hair like processes, while hamuli are hooked at the end; they are not found on all feathers, nor on all parts of some feathers." Elliot Coues, 1884

Single Barbule

"Fig. 21. -A single barbule, baring barbicels and hooklets; magnified; after Nitzsch. ...barbicels (another…

"Speotyto. Burrowing Owls. tarsi long, about twice as long as the middle toe without its claw, very scant-feathered in front, bare behind; toes bristly. The long slim legs are quite peculiar.

The Beaks and Claws of a Burrowing Owl

"Speotyto. Burrowing Owls. tarsi long, about twice as long as the middle toe without its claw, very…

Aerial (top) view of Barn Swallow's bill "Hirundo horreorum. Barn Swallow. Bill of moderate size for this family, of the usual shape, with straight commissure; nostrils lateral overarched by a membranous scale." Elliot Coues, 1884

Barn Swallow Bill

Aerial (top) view of Barn Swallow's bill "Hirundo horreorum. Barn Swallow. Bill of moderate size for…

"Icterus. Orioles. Bill averaging as long as head (more or less); very acute, sometimes decurved." Elliot Coues, 1884

Oriole Bill

"Icterus. Orioles. Bill averaging as long as head (more or less); very acute, sometimes decurved." Elliot…

"North American White Pelican. Bill and feet ordinarily yellow; much reddened in the breeding season, when the general tone of the bill is reddish salmon color, the under mandible brighter than the upper, which has the ridge whitish; pouch passing from livid whitish anteriorly through yellow and orange to red at base. Bill a foot or more." Elliot Coues

Pelican Bill

"North American White Pelican. Bill and feet ordinarily yellow; much reddened in the breeding season,…

"Fig. 26 - Parts of a Bill. a, side of upper mandible; b, culmen; c, nasal fossa; d, nostril; e(see below); f, gape, or whole commissural line; g, rictus; h, commissural point or angle of the mouth; i, ramus of under jaw; j, tomia of under mandible (the reference lines e should have been drawn to indicate the correct tomia of upper mandible):k, angle of gonys; l, gonys; m, side of under mandible; n, tips of mandibles." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Parts of a Bird Bill

"Fig. 26 - Parts of a Bill. a, side of upper mandible; b, culmen; c, nasal fossa; d, nostril; e(see…

"Fig. Typical passerine feet. The right hand fig. is plectrophanes lapponicus." Elliot Coues, 1884

Typical Passerine Bird Feet

"Fig. Typical passerine feet. The right hand fig. is plectrophanes lapponicus." Elliot Coues, 1884

"Diagram of the female genital organs of a Bird. c, cloaca; i, intestine; k, kidney; o, ovary with ova of different size; od., oviduct; o.f., funnel of the oviduct; o.o., opening of the oviduct into the cloaca; u, ureter; u.o., opening of ureter into the cloaca. Only one ovary and oviduct are fully developed in the Birds." -Galloway, 1915

Female Bird Genital Organs

"Diagram of the female genital organs of a Bird. c, cloaca; i, intestine; k, kidney; o, ovary with ova…

"Diagram of the urino-genital organs of a male Bird. ad., adrenal body; c, cloaca; i, intestine; k, kidney; t, testis; u, ureter; u.o., opening of ureter into the cloaca; v.d., vas deferens; v.d.o., opening of the vas deferens; v.s., vesicula seminalis." -Galloway, 1915

Male Bird Genital Organs

"Diagram of the urino-genital organs of a male Bird. ad., adrenal body; c, cloaca; i, intestine; k,…

"Right shoulder-girdle or scapular arch of fowl, showing hp, the hypoclidium; f, furculum; Co, coracoid; Sc, scapula; gl, glenoid." -Whitney, 1911

Bird Scapula

"Right shoulder-girdle or scapular arch of fowl, showing hp, the hypoclidium; f, furculum; Co, coracoid;…

"Diagrammatic section of young bird. n., Spinal cord; v., vertebra; r., rib; L., liver; G., gut; som. (dotted), somatic layer of mesoblast; spl. (dotted), splanchnic layer of mesoblast; ao., aorta; R., reproductive organ; K., kidney." -Thomson, 1916

Bird Section

"Diagrammatic section of young bird. n., Spinal cord; v., vertebra; r., rib; L., liver; G., gut; som.…

"fig. 25 - Topography of a Bird. 1, forehead (frons). 2, lore. 3, circumocular region. 4, crown (vertex). 5, eye. 6, hind head (occiput). 7, nape (nucha). 8, hind neck (cervix). 9, side of neck. 10, interscapular region. 11, dorsum, or back proper, including 10. 12, notaeum, or upper part of body proper, including 10, 11, and 13. 13, rump (uropygium). 14, upper tail-coverts. 15, tail. 16, under tail-coverts (crissum). 17, tarsus. 18, abdomen. 19, hind toe (hallux). 20, gastraeum, including 18 and 24. 21, outer and fourth toe. 22, middle and third toe. 23, side of the body. 24, breast (pectus). 25, primaries. 26, secondaries. 27, tertiaries; nos. 25, 26, 27 are all coverts. 28, primary coverts. 29, alula, or bastard wing. 30, greater coverts. 31, median coverts. 32, lesser coverts. 33, the "throat," including 34, 37, 38. 34, jugulum or lower throat. 35, auriculars. 36, malar region. 37, gula, or middle throat. 38, mentum, or chin. 39, angle of commissure, or corner of mouth. 40, ramus of under mandible. 41, side of under mandible. 42, gonys. 43, apex, or tip of bill. 44, tomia, or cutting edges of the bill. 45, culmen, or ridge of upper mandible, corresponding to gonys. 46, side of upper mandible. 47, nostril. 48, passes across the bill a little in front of it base." Elliot Coues, 1884

Topography of a Bird

"fig. 25 - Topography of a Bird. 1, forehead (frons). 2, lore. 3, circumocular region. 4, crown (vertex).…

"Scutellate. Foot of bluebird, with laminiplantar and mostly booted tarsus and of the toes." -Whitney, 1911

Bluebird Foot

"Scutellate. Foot of bluebird, with laminiplantar and mostly booted tarsus and of the toes." -Whitney,…

"Epipleurae.-- Thorax, scapular arch, and part of pelvic arch of a bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus). ep, four epipleurae or uncinate processes of as many ribs; pl, pleurapophysial parts of seven ribs; hp, hemapopysial parts of six ribs; v, dorsolumbar vertebrae; st, sternum (the letters are on the carina or keel); m, manubrium sterni; cp, costal process of sternum, bearing f, furcula; ec, epiclidium of furcula; h, hypoclidium of fucula; gl, glenoid fossa, formed by coracoid and scapula; il, ilium; is, ischium; p, pubis; a, acetabulum." -Whitney, 1911

Bobolink Epipleurae

"Epipleurae.-- Thorax, scapular arch, and part of pelvic arch of a bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus).…

"Sterna anaisthetikos. Bridled Tern. The foot of a Bridled Tern; Tarsus .85; middle toe the same, with the claw 1.20; outer toe 1.00; inner .75." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Foot of a Bridled Foot

"Sterna anaisthetikos. Bridled Tern. The foot of a Bridled Tern; Tarsus .85; middle toe the same, with…

"Fig. 41 shows phalanges of caprimulgines foot, where the ratio is 2, 3, 4, 4." Elliot Coues, 1884

Phalanges of Caprimulgine

"Fig. 41 shows phalanges of caprimulgines foot, where the ratio is 2, 3, 4, 4." Elliot Coues, 1884

"Skeleton of the Limbs and Tail of a Carinate Bird. (The skeleton of the body is indicated by dotted lines.) F, digits; Fi, fibula; HW, carpus; MF, tarsometatarsus; MH, carpometacarpus; OA, humerus; OS, femur; Py, pygostyle; R, coracoid; Ul, ulna; Sch, scapula; St, sternum, with its keel (Cr); T, tibiotarsus; Rd, radius; Z, Z, digits of foot. (From Wiedersheim.)" A. H. Evans, 1900

Skeleton of the Limbs and Tail of a Carinate Bird

"Skeleton of the Limbs and Tail of a Carinate Bird. (The skeleton of the body is indicated by dotted…

"Figure shows Scutellate laminiplanter tarsus of a cat-bird. A tarsus so disposed as to its podotheca is said to be scutellate - scutellate before (fig 37), or behind, or both, as the case may be. ." Elliot Coues, 1884

Scutellate Laminiplanter Tarsus of a Cat-bird

"Figure shows Scutellate laminiplanter tarsus of a cat-bird. A tarsus so disposed as to its podotheca…

"Fig 66 - Head of a chick, second stage, after five days of incubation, section in profile; x6 diameters. cvl, cv2, cv3, first, second, and third cerebral vesicles; 1, place of the first nerve, the olfactory; 2, place of second nerve, the optic; ic, internal carotid artery, running into skull at what was originally the pituitary space, now an opening bounded in front by the anterior, acl, behind the posterior, pcl, clinoid walls; nc, notochord; oc, occipital condyle, thence to pcl being the original parachordal cartilage, here seen in profile; eo, exoccipital; eth, ethmoid, with ps, its presphenoid region posteriorly, and pn, pre-nasal part; this whole plate afterward developing into parts of the nose and the partition between the eyes; pa, palatine; pg, pterygoid region; pa and pg reference lines are in the chick's mouth; mk meckelian cartilage (lower jaw); ch and bh, ceratohyal and basihyal parts of the hyoid or tongue bone." Elliot Coues, 1884

Chick Head

"Fig 66 - Head of a chick, second stage, after five days of incubation, section in profile; x6 diameters.…

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running behind into the septum nasi; on each side of it the premaxillary, px, of which the (inner) palatal and (outer) dentary processes are seen (the upper nasal process hidden); mx, the maxillary, developing inner process, the maxillo-palatine, mxp; pa, the palatal, well-formed, articulating behind with rbs, the sphenoidal rostrum, its thickened under border, the parasphenoid; this will bear the vomer at its end when that bone is developed; j, jugal, joining mx and qj, the quadrato-jugal, joining j and q, the quadrate; mx to q, the jugal bar or zygoma; pg, the pterygoid, making with pa the pterygo-palatine bar, joining q and px; bt, the basitemporal, great mat of bone from ear to ear, underflooring the skull proper, as rbs, a similar formation, does further forward; ic, outer end of carotid canal, to run between the bt plate and true floor of skull, and enter brain cavity at original site of pituitary fossa; ty, tympanic cavity - external opening of ear; as, alisphenoid, bounding much of brain-box anteriorly, and orbital cavity posteriorly; psc, posterior semicircular canal of ear, in opisthotic bone, which will unite with the spreading eo, exoccipital, which will reach the cobdyle shown in the middle line, above the foramen magnum, fm, completed above by so, supra-occipital; 8, foramen lacerum posterius, exit of pneumogastric, glosso-pharyngeal and spinall accessory nerve; 9, exit of hypoglossal nerve, in basi-occipital." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Three

"Skull of chick, third stage, viewed from below, x6 & 2/3 diameters. pn, prenasal cartilage, running…

"Skull of chick, second stage, in profile, brain and membranes removed to show cartilaginous formations, X4 diameters. eth, ethmoid, forming median nose-parts and inter-orbital septum; developing lateral parts, as ale, aliethmoid, als, aliseptum, aln, alinasal, pp, partition between nose and eye; pn, prenasal cartilage; ps, presphenoidal part of midethmoid; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, walling brain-box in front; pf, post-frontal, bounding orbit behind; pa, pg, palatine and pterygoid; q, quadrate; so, supra-occipital; eo, ex-occipital; oc, occipital condyle, borne upon basi-occipital, and showing nc, remains of notochord; these occipital bound the foramen magnum, and eo expands laterally to form a tympanic wing, circumscribing the external auditory orifice behind and below; hsc, psc, horizontal and posterior vertical semicircular canals of ear; fr, st, fenestra rotunda and fenestra ovalis, leading into inner ear, latter closed by foot of the stapes; mk, ch, bh, bbr, cbr, ebr, parts of jaw and tongue." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Skull of a Chick Stage Two

"Skull of chick, second stage, in profile, brain and membranes removed to show cartilaginous formations,…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary; aln, ali-nasal cartilage; en, septo-nasal; n, nasal bone; l, lacrymal; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, ps, prespeenoidal region; as, alisphenoid; f, frontal; p, parietal; sq, squamosal; so, superoccipital; eo, exoccipital; oc, occipital condyle; st, the cross-like object, the stapes, whose foot fits fenestra ovalis; q, quadrate; pg, pterygoid; qj, quadrato-jugal; jugal; pa, palatine; mx, maxillary. In the mandible: d, dentary; su, surangular; a, angular; ar, atricular; iap, internal angular process; pap, posterior angular process. 2, optic foramen; 5, foramen ovale, for inferior divisions of the 5th nerve." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull Profile

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after Parker. px, premaxillary;…

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible are seen: mk, remarks of meckelian rod; d, dentary bone; sp, splenial; a, angular; su, surangular; ar, articular; iap, internal articular process; pap, posterior articular process. In the skull: pn, the original prenasal cartilage, upon which is moulded the premaxillary, px, with its nasal process, npx, and dentary process, dpx; sn, septo-nasal cartilage, in which is seen nn, nasal nerve; ntb, nasal turbinal; the reference line crosses the cranio-facial suture, the face parts and cranial parts being nealry separated here by the nick seen in the original cartilaginous plate; eth, ethmoid; pe, perpendicular plate of ethmoid, which will spread nearly throughout the dotted cartilaginous tract in which it lies, to form nearly all the interorbital septum; transverse thickening (in some birds) below the reference line eth will form the pre-frontal, or orbito-nasal septum; iof, inter-orbital foramen; ps, pre sphenoidal region, just above which is the orbito-sphenoidal region; 2, optic foramen; as, alisphenoid, with 5 foramen for division of the 5th (trifacial) nerve; f, frontal; sq, squamosal; p, parietal; so, superoccipital; asc, anterior semicircular canal; sc, a sinus (venous canal); ep, epiotic; eo, exoccipital; op, opisthotic; po, prootic, with 7 meatus auditorius internus, for entrance of 7th nerve; 8, foramen nfor vagus nerve; bo, basioccipital; bt, basitemporal; ic, canal (in original pituitary space; ) by which carotid artery enters brain activity; ap; basipterygoid process; ap to rbs, rostrum ofhte skull, being the parasphenoid bone underflooring the basisphenoid and future perpendicular plate of ethmoid." Elliot Coues, 1884

Ripe Chick's Skull

"Ripe chick's skull, longitudinal section, vied inside, x 3 diameters; after parker. In the mandible…

Side view of the Barn Swallow's claw. "Hirundo horreorum. Barn Swallow. Tarsi shorter than middle toe and claw, above feathered for a little distance; basal joint of middle toe partly adherent to both lateral toes." Elliot Coues, 1884

Barn Swallow Claw

Side view of the Barn Swallow's claw. "Hirundo horreorum. Barn Swallow. Tarsi shorter than middle toe…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Cormorant. The knee-joint of a Cormorants. F, femur; P, patella; T, tibia; Fb, fibula

The Knee-joint of a Cormorant

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Cormorant. The knee-joint of a Cormorants. F, femur; P, patella; T, tibia;…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Skull showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone; The style is somewhat tilted upward from its natural position." Elliot Coues, 1884

Cormorant Skull

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Skull showing sto, occipital style or nuchal bone;…

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Sternum and the shoulder from the skeleton of a Cormorant." Elliot Coues, 1884

Cormorant Sternum and Shoulder

"Phalacrocorax bicristatus. Red-Faced Cormorant. Sternum and the shoulder from the skeleton of a Cormorant."…

The head and leg of the crane, a bird in the Gruidae family of cranes.

Crane Head and Leg

The head and leg of the crane, a bird in the Gruidae family of cranes.

"Coiling of the windpipe in the sternum of Grus canadensis. Sandhill Crane." Elliot Coues, 1884

Sandhill Crane Windpipe

"Coiling of the windpipe in the sternum of Grus canadensis. Sandhill Crane." Elliot Coues, 1884

"Very generally, in cranes and swans, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is excavated to receive it, and where it forms one or more coils before emerging to pass to the lungs. This curious winding is carried to the extreme in our Grus americanus, the whoopong crane, in which the wind-pipe is about as long as the whole bird, and about half of it - over two feet of it! - is coiled away in the breast-bone." Elliot Coues

Whooping Crane Windpipe

"Very generally, in cranes and swans, the trachea enters the keel of the sternum, which is excavated…

"Schizorhinal skull of curlew (top view), showing the long cleft, a, between upper and lower forks of each nasal bone." -Whitney, 1911

Curlew Skull

"Schizorhinal skull of curlew (top view), showing the long cleft, a, between upper and lower forks of…

"Fig. 40 Phalanges of Cypseline foot, where the ratio is 2, 3, 3, 3 of Caprimulginae." Elliot Coues, 1884

Phalanges of Cypseline Foot

"Fig. 40 Phalanges of Cypseline foot, where the ratio is 2, 3, 3, 3 of Caprimulginae." Elliot Coues,…

"Fig. 24. - Pterylosis of Cyoselus apus, drawn by Coues after Nitzsch; right hand upper, left hand lower, surface. 1 spinal tract; 2. humeral; 3. femoral; 4. capital; 5. alar; 6. caudal; 7. crural; 8. ventral." Elliot Coues, 1884

Pterylosis of Cypselus Apus

"Fig. 24. - Pterylosis of Cyoselus apus, drawn by Coues after Nitzsch; right hand upper, left hand lower,…

"Alle. Sea Dove. Size small. Bill very short, stout, and obtuse, as well as high at base, the sides of both mandibles turgid, the edge of the upper much infected; culmen very convex; rictus ample, decurved at end; gonys straight, very short, the mandibular rami correspondingly long, and widely divaricated; nasal fossae short, wide, deep, partly, patly feathered. Nostrils sub basal, more nearly circular than in any other genus excepting the next." Elliot Coues, 1884

Sea Dove Bill

"Alle. Sea Dove. Size small. Bill very short, stout, and obtuse, as well as high at base, the sides…

"Details of Engyptila albifrons (White-fronted Dove); head and foot natural size; wing and tail reduced.

White-fronted Dove Details

"Details of Engyptila albifrons (White-fronted Dove); head and foot natural size; wing and tail reduced.

"Fig 27. - Bones of the right wing of a duck, Clangula islandica, A, shoulder, omos; B, elbow, ancon; C, wrist, carpus; D, end of principal finger; E, end of hand proper, metacarpus. AB, upper arm, brachium; BC, fore-arm, antibrachium; CD, whole hand or pinion, manus; composed of CE, hand proper or metacarpus, excepting d2; ED, or d2, d3, d4, fingers, digits, digiti, h, humerus; rd, radius; ul, ulna; sc, outer carpal, scapholunare or radiale; cu, inner carpal, cuneiforme or ulnare; these two composing wrist or carpus. mc, the compound hand-bone or metcarpus, composed of three metacarpal bones, bearing as many digits - the outer digit seated upon a protuberance at the head of the metacarpal, the other two situated at the end of the bone. d2, the outer or radial digit, commonly called the thumb or pollex, composed or two phalanges; d3, the middle digit, of two phalanges; d4, the inner or ulnar digit, of one phalanx d2 is the seat of the feathers of the bastard wing or alula. D to C (whole pinion), seat of the flight feathers called primaries; C to B (fore-arm), seat of the secondaries; at B and above it in direction of A, seat of tertiaries proper; below A, in direction of B, seat of scapularies (upon pteryla humeralis), often called tertiaries. The wing shown half-spread: complete extension would bring A B C D into a right line; in complete folding C goes to A, and D to B; all these motions nearly in the plane of the paper. The elbow-joint and wrist are such perfect hinges, that, in opening or closing the wing, C cannot sink below the paper, nor D fly up above the paper, as would otherwise be the effect of the pressure of the air upon the flight-feathers. Observe also rd and ul are two rods connecting B and C; the construction of their joining at B and C, and with each other, is such, that they can slide lengthwise a little upon each other. Now when the point C, revolving about B, approaches A in the arc of a circle, rd pushes on sc, while ul pulls back cu; the motion is transmitted to D, and makes this point approach B. conversely, in opening the wing, rd pulls back sc, and ul pushes on cu, making D recede from B. In other words, the angle A B C cannot be increased or diminished without similarly increasing or diminishing the angle B C D; so that no part of the wing can be opened or shut without automatically opening or shutting the rest..." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Bones of the Right Wing of a Duck

"Fig 27. - Bones of the right wing of a duck, Clangula islandica, A, shoulder, omos; B, elbow, ancon;…

"Cochlea, X3. a, external, b, internal, cartilaginous prism; c, membranous zone; d, saccular extremity of the cochlea, or lagena; e, vascular membrane; f, auditory nerve, its middle fascicle penetrating the internal cartilaginous prism, to reach the membranous zone by its terminal filaments; g, auditory nerve, its posterior fascicle, running to the most posterior part of the lagena; h, filament to ampulla of posterior or inferior vertical semicircular canal." Elliot Coues, 1884

Eagle Cochlea

"Cochlea, X3. a, external, b, internal, cartilaginous prism; c, membranous zone; d, saccular extremity…

"Section of the cochlea, X3. a, vestibular surface of external cartilaginous prism, extending into d, the lagena; c, section of the membranous zone; e, Huschke's process of the fenestra, which, with the margins of the cartilaginous prisms, affords attachment Treviranus; i, canals in posterior wall of the lagena, by which the nervous filaments enter its cavity." Elliot Coues, 1884

A Section of an Eagle's Cochlea

"Section of the cochlea, X3. a, vestibular surface of external cartilaginous prism, extending into d,…

"Sclerotals of eye of bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus)." -Whitney, 1911

Eagle Eye Sclerotal

"Sclerotals of eye of bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus)." -Whitney, 1911

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular extremity (or lagena); c, vestibule; g, its utricle; d, anterior of superior vertical semicircular canal; e, external or horizontal semicircular canal; f, posterior of inferior vertical semicircular canal; h, membranous canal leading into aqueduct of the vestibule; k, vascular membrane covering the scala vestibuli; opposite this, at i, are seen the edges of the cartilaginous prisms in the fenestra rotunda; from the edges of these cartilages proceeds the delicate membrane closing the opening of the cochlea (not shown in the fi.)" Elliot Coues, 1884

The Inner Ear of a White-tailed Eagle

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular…

"Part of the superior vertical semicircular canal, showing its ampulla (which is the dilatation of the base of any semicircular canal), nerve of ampulla, artery connective tissue of the perilymph, X3, a, that part of the vestibule (alveus) next to the ampulla; b, the idlatation of the ampulla at its vestibular opening; c, where it passes into the canal proper; d, the canal, furnished with connective of the perilymph along its concave border and sides, as appears clearly at the sections e and f; g, nerve of the ampulla; h, artery of the connective tissue, running beneath it, remote from the wall of the duct." Elliot Coues, 1884

Eagle's Ampulal

"Part of the superior vertical semicircular canal, showing its ampulla (which is the dilatation of the…

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular extremity (or lagena); c, vestibule; g, its utricle; d, anterior of superior vertical semicircular canal; e, external or horizontal semicircular canal; f, posterior of inferior vertical semicircular canal; h, membranous canal leading into aqueduct of the vestibule; k, vascular membrane covering the scala vestibuli; opposite this, at i, are seen the edges of the cartilaginous prisms in the fenestra rotunda; from the edges of these cartilages proceeds the delicate membrane closing the opening of the cochlea (not shown in the fi.)" Elliot Coues, 1884

The Inner Ear of an Eagle

"Membranous labyrinth of Haliaetus albicilla (White-tailed Eagle), X2. a,b, cochlea; b, its saccular…

"Somateri mollissima. Somateri dresseri. Common Eider. Bill gibbous at base of upper mandible; outline of culmen variously curved; with long, acute or clubbed, tumid process extending in line with culmen variously curved; with long, acute or clubbed tumid process extending in line with culmen on each side of forehead, divided by extension of feathers on culmen. feathers of side of bill advancing to about under nostrils, far beyond those on culmen. No speculum. Male no black marks on chin. (mollissima - Frontal processes short, narrow, acute, parallel. Smaller.). (dresseri - Frontal processes long, broad, clubbed, divergent. Larger.)." Elliot Coues, 1884

The Bill of an Eider

"Somateri mollissima. Somateri dresseri. Common Eider. Bill gibbous at base of upper mandible; outline…

"Fig. 28. - Mechanism of elbow-joint. ..., where rc and uc show respectively the size, shape, and position of the radial condyle and ulnar condyle of the humerus. It is evident that in the flexed state of the elbow, as shown in the middle figure, the radius, rd, is do pushed upon that its end projects beyond ul, the ulna; while in the opposite condition of extension, shown in the lower figure, rd is pulled back to a corresponding extent." Elliot Coues, 1884

Mechanism of the Elbow-Joint

"Fig. 28. - Mechanism of elbow-joint. ..., where rc and uc show respectively the size, shape, and position…

"Right Eyeball of Bird, seen from behind, showing the following muscles; a, rectus superior; b, rectus externus; c, rectus inferior; d, rectus internus; e, obliquus superior; f, obliquus inferior; g, quadratus; h, pyramidalis, with its tendon, k, passing through a pulley in the quadratus (as shown by dotted line) to keep it off the optic nerve, i, then passing around the edge of the ball to its insertion in the nictitating membrane." -Whitney, 1911

Right Eyeball of Bird

"Right Eyeball of Bird, seen from behind, showing the following muscles; a, rectus superior; b, rectus…

"The annexed figure explains the nomenclature of most of the outward of a Bird, but some further explanations may be given." A. H. Evans, 1900

A Labeled Diagram of a Falcon to Show the Nomenclature of the External Parts

"The annexed figure explains the nomenclature of most of the outward of a Bird, but some further explanations…

"Skeleton of the trunk of a Falcon. Ca, coracoid, which articulates with the sternum (St) at ; Cr, keel of sternum; Fu (Cl), furcula (clavicles); G, glenoid cavity for humerus; S, scapula; Un uncinate process; V, vertebral, and Sp, sternal, portion of rib. (From Wiedersheim.)" A. H. Evans, 1900

The Skeleton of the Trunk of a Falcon

"Skeleton of the trunk of a Falcon. Ca, coracoid, which articulates with the sternum (St) at ; Cr, keel…

"Fig. - 20 - Two barbs, a, a, of a vane, bearing anterior, b, b, and posterior, c, barbules; enlarged; after Nitzsch." Elliot Coues, 1884

Structure of a Feather

"Fig. - 20 - Two barbs, a, a, of a vane, bearing anterior, b, b, and posterior, c, barbules; enlarged;…