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"Therefore, the small quantity in the spout balances the large quantity in the pot, or presses with the same force downwards, as that in the body of the pot presses upwards." -Comstock 1850

Water Pressure

"Therefore, the small quantity in the spout balances the large quantity in the pot, or presses with…

"Take a tube bent like the letter U, and, having filled it with water, place a finger on each end, and in this state plunge one of the ends into a vessel of water, so that the end in the water shall be a little the highest then remove the fingers and the liquid will flow out, and continue to do so until the vessel is exhasted." -Comstock 1850

Syphon

"Take a tube bent like the letter U, and, having filled it with water, place a finger on each end, and…

"If a vessel be filled with water, and three apertures be made in its sie at E F G, the fluid will be thrown out in jets, falling to the earth in the curved lines shown." -Comstock 1850

Water Velocity and Gravity

"If a vessel be filled with water, and three apertures be made in its sie at E F G, the fluid will be…

"It consists of a tube, made of lead, or strong leather, coiled round a cylinder of wood or iron, as represented..." -Comstock 1850

Archimedes' Water Screw

"It consists of a tube, made of lead, or strong leather, coiled round a cylinder of wood or iron, as…

"The large wheel a, is supposed to stand over the well, and b, a smaller wheel, is fixed in the water. The rope is extended between the two wheels, and rises on one side in a perpendicular disrection. On turning the wheel by the crank d, the water is brought up by the friction of the rope." -Comstock 1850

Rope Machine

"The large wheel a, is supposed to stand over the well, and b, a smaller wheel, is fixed in the water.…

"The upright cyclinder a, is a tube which has a funnel shaped mouth for the admission of the stream of water from the pipe b. This tube is six or eight inches in diameter, and may be from ten to twenty feet long. The arms n and o, are also tubes communicating freely with the upright one, from the opposte sides of which they proceed." -Comstock 1850

Centrifugal Mill

"The upright cyclinder a, is a tube which has a funnel shaped mouth for the admission of the stream…

"It consists of a number of square pieces of board, or of thin iron, connected together through their centres by iron rods, so that they can have no lateral motion..The ascending side of this chain passes through a square box, to which these pieces or buckets are closely fitted..." -Comstock 1850

Chain Pump

"It consists of a number of square pieces of board, or of thin iron, connected together through their…

"This wheel of all others, gives the greatest power with the least quantity of water, and is, therefore, generally used when circumstances will permit, or where there is a considerable fall, with a limited quantity of water." -Comstock 1850

Overshot Wheel

"This wheel of all others, gives the greatest power with the least quantity of water, and is, therefore,…

"Thus constructed, this wheel moves equally well whether the water acts on one or the other side of the boards, and hence is employed for tide wheels, which turn in one direction when the tide is going out, and in the other when it is coming in." -Comstock 1850

Undershot Wheel

"Thus constructed, this wheel moves equally well whether the water acts on one or the other side of…

"In this water, instead of passing over, or entirely under the wheel, is delievered in the direction of its centre. This is one of the most common wheels, and is employed where there is not a sufficient fall for the construction of the overshot kind." -Comstock 1850

Breast Wheel

"In this water, instead of passing over, or entirely under the wheel, is delievered in the direction…

"Invented by Montgolfier in 1796, this only allows water to pass when the current is steady, or still, and closes when there are spurts." -Comstock 1850

Water Ram

"Invented by Montgolfier in 1796, this only allows water to pass when the current is steady, or still,…

"This consists of a brass or iron barrel, A, containing at its upper part a hollow piston and valve opening upward. Below this there is another valve, also opening upward. The pipe and stockcock C, are for the purpose of letting the water from the barrel to the tube, which descends into the well." -Comstock 1850

Common Metalic Pump

"This consists of a brass or iron barrel, A, containing at its upper part a hollow piston and valve…

"The forcing pump is represented where A is a solid piston, working air tight in its barrel. There tube, C leads from the barrel to the air vessel, D. Through the pipe, P, the water is thrown into the open air.G s a gauge, by which the pressure of the water in the air vessel is ascertained Through the water pipe I, the water ascends into the barrel, its upper end being furnished with a valve opening upwards." -Comstock 1850

Forcing Pump

"The forcing pump is represented where A is a solid piston, working air tight in its barrel. There tube,…

"A curious combination of the atmospheric pump and the forcing pump, invented by Mr. Trevethick." -Comstock 1850

Atmospheric and Forcing Pump

"A curious combination of the atmospheric pump and the forcing pump, invented by Mr. Trevethick." -Comstock…

"After preparing the fountain, water is added into D, and later, the tube is opened to allow the air trapped in box A to escape." -Comstock 1850

Hiero's Fountain

"After preparing the fountain, water is added into D, and later, the tube is opened to allow the air…

"Machine used to take water out of mines." -Comstock 1850

Newcomen's Engine

"Machine used to take water out of mines." -Comstock 1850

"Let a represent a, b water, and c a piece of glass. The ray d, striking each medium in a perpendicular direction." -Comstock 1850

Refraction, air, water, glass

"Let a represent a, b water, and c a piece of glass. The ray d, striking each medium in a perpendicular…

"Let the medium b be glass, and the medium c, water. The ray a, as it falls upon the medium b, is refracted towards the perpendicular line e d; but when it enters the water, whose refractive power is less than that of glass, it is not bent so near the perpendicular as before, and hence it is refracted from, instead of towards the perpendicular line, and approaches the originial direction of the ray a g, when passing through the air." -Comstock 1850

Refraction, glass and water

"Let the medium b be glass, and the medium c, water. The ray a, as it falls upon the medium b, is refracted…

"Suppose the rod a, to be set with one half of its length below the surface of the water and the other half above it. The eye being placed in an oblique direction will see the lower end apparently at the point o, while the real termination of the rod would be at n; the refraction will therefore make the rod appear shorter by the distance from o to n, or one-fourth shorter than the part below the water really is." -Comstock 1850

Refraction, water

"Suppose the rod a, to be set with one half of its length below the surface of the water and the other…

"Suppose the tumbler, a, to be filled with water, and placed beyond the principal focus of the concave mirror, and so managed as to be hid from eye c, by the screen b. The lamp by which the tumbler is illuminated must also be placed behind the screen, and near the tumbler, To a person placed at c, the tumbler with its contents will appear incerted at e, and suspended in the air." -Comstock 1850

Deception by Mirrors

"Suppose the tumbler, a, to be filled with water, and placed beyond the principal focus of the concave…

"If we take for example, a slip of zinc, and another of copper, and place the in a cup of diluted sulphuric acid, their upper ends in tontact, and above the water, and their lower ends separated, then there will be constituted a galvanic circle, of the simplest form, consisting of three elements, zinc, acid, copper." -Comstock 1850

Galvanic Battery

"If we take for example, a slip of zinc, and another of copper, and place the in a cup of diluted sulphuric…

"Carefully place a fine sewing needle upon the surface of the water. With care, and perhaps repitition, the needle may be made to float...Closely examine the surface of the water. Notice that the needle rests in a little depression or bed, just as it would if the surface of the water was a thin skin or membrane." -Avery 1895

Surface Tension and Needle

"Carefully place a fine sewing needle upon the surface of the water. With care, and perhaps repitition,…

"Get a lamp-chimney, preferably cylindrical. With a diamond or a steel glass-cutter, cut a disk of window glass a little larger than the cross-section of the lamp-chimney. Pour some fine emery powder on the disk, and rub one end of the chimney upon it, thus grinding them until they fit accurately...place [the chimney] under the water as shown. the upward pressure of the water will hold the disk in place. Pour water carefully into the tube; the disk will fall as soon as the weight of the water in the chimney plus the weight of th disk, exceeds the upward pressure of the water." -Avery 1895

Water Pressure Experiment

"Get a lamp-chimney, preferably cylindrical. With a diamond or a steel glass-cutter, cut a disk of window…

"After pouring mercury into the U-tube, the level of mercury is marked by a. c and e refer to the positions of the mercury after water has been added so that the water fills one side of the U-tube." -Avery 1895

Effects of Water on Mercury in a U-tube

"After pouring mercury into the U-tube, the level of mercury is marked by a. c and e refer to the positions…

"By measuring the weight required to move the end cap of any of the shown tubes filled with water, it may be ascertained that the water required is only dependent on the level of water, not the weight." -Avery 1895

Water Pressure Independent of Vessel

"By measuring the weight required to move the end cap of any of the shown tubes filled with water, it…

"When any liquid is placed in one or more of several vessels communicating with each other, it will not come to rest until it stands at the same height inall of thw vessels. This principle is emobodied in the familiar expression 'Water seeks its level.' the principle is illustrated, on a large scale, in the system of pipes by which water is distributed in cities." -Avery 1895

Water Level in Multiple Connected Vessels

"When any liquid is placed in one or more of several vessels communicating with each other, it will…

"From one end of a scale-beam, suspend a cylindrical metal bucket, b, with a solid cylinder, a, that fits accurately into it hanging below. Conterpoise with weights (shot or sand) in the opposite scale-pan. Immerse a in water, and the counterpoise will descend, as if a had lost some of its weight. Carefully fill b with water. It will hold exactly the quantity displaced by a. Equilibrium will be restored." -Avery 1895

Archimedies Principle

"From one end of a scale-beam, suspend a cylindrical metal bucket, b, with a solid cylinder, a, that…

"It is evident that, when a solid is immersed in a fluid, it will displace exactly its own volume of the fluid. Immerse a solid cube one centimeter on each edge in water, so that its upper face shall be level and one centimeter below the surface of the liquid, as shown. The lateral pressures upon any two opposite vertical surfaces of the cube, as a and b, are clearly equal and opposite." -Avery 1895

Archimedies Principle

"It is evident that, when a solid is immersed in a fluid, it will displace exactly its own volume of…

"The most common way of determining the density of such a body [that is heavier than water] if it is unsoluble in water, is to find its weight in air (w); find its weight when immersed in water (w'); divide the weight in air by the loss of weight in water." -Avery 1895

Scale Designed to Weigh Objects While Underwater

"The most common way of determining the density of such a body [that is heavier than water] if it is…

"The Nicholson hydrometer of constant volume is a hollow cylinder carrying at its lower end a basket, d, heavy enough to keep the apparatus upright in water. At the top of the cylinder is a vertical rod carrying a pan, a, for holding weights, etc. The whole apparatus must be lighter than water, so that a certain weight (W) must be put into the pan to sink the apparatus to a fixed point marked on the rod (as c). The given body, which must weigh less than W, is placed in the pan, and enought weights (w) added to sink the point c, to the water line It is evident that the weight of the given body is W-w." -Avery 1895

Nicholson Hydrometer

"The Nicholson hydrometer of constant volume is a hollow cylinder carrying at its lower end a basket,…

"An apparatus designed to measure the elongation or contraction of a spring when attached to two scale-pans, with one immersed in water." -Avery 1895

Jolly Balance

"An apparatus designed to measure the elongation or contraction of a spring when attached to two scale-pans,…

"Draw out a piece of glass tubing to a jet, and push it through a perforation in a cork that snugly fits a bottle. Slip a short piece of snugly fitting rubber tubing over the outer end of the glass tubing, and insert the cork so that the jet shall project into the bottle. Remove by suction as much air as possible, pinch the rubber tubing tightly, place it under water, and remove the pressure. Something will force the water into the bottle, forming the 'fountain in vacuo' as shown." -Avery 1895

Foutain in Vacuo

"Draw out a piece of glass tubing to a jet, and push it through a perforation in a cork that snugly…

"The condensing pump is an instrument for compressing a gas into a closed vessel, as in pumping air into a pneumatic tire of a bicycle, or oxygen or hydrogen into the cylinders commonly used for stereopticon purposes, or charging water with carbon dioxide for sale as 'soda water'." -Avery 1895

Condensing Pump

"The condensing pump is an instrument for compressing a gas into a closed vessel, as in pumping air…

"Partly fill two bottles with water. Connect them by a bent tube that fits closely into the mouth of one, and loosely into the mouth of the other. Place the bottle under the receiver and exhause the air. Note and record what takes place. Admit air to the receiver. Note and record what takes place." -Avery 1895

Bottle Siphon

"Partly fill two bottles with water. Connect them by a bent tube that fits closely into the mouth of…

"Hold a vibrating tuning fork over the mouth of a cylindrical jar about 10 or 18 inches deep, and notive the feebleness of the sound. Pour in water, as shown, and notive that, when the liquid reaches a certain level, the sound suddenly becomes much louder." -Avery 1895

Demonstration of Resonance Using a Tuning Fork and Water Column

"Hold a vibrating tuning fork over the mouth of a cylindrical jar about 10 or 18 inches deep, and notive…

"Thermometers showing the corresponding points for water's freezing and boiling." -Avery 1895

Fahrenheit and Celcius scale Thermometers

"Thermometers showing the corresponding points for water's freezing and boiling." -Avery 1895

"Pass the tube of an air thermometer or of an inverted mercury thermometer through a cork in the neck of a funnel. Cover the thermometer bulb to the depth of about half an inch with water. Upon the water, pour a little sulphuric ether and ignite it. The thermometer below will scarcely be affected, although the water above may be boiling. Stir the water and note the prompt movement of the thermometer index..." -Avery 1895

Funnel with Inverted Mercury Thermometer

"Pass the tube of an air thermometer or of an inverted mercury thermometer through a cork in the neck…

"Partly fill with strong brine a Florence glask the cork of which carries a delivery-tube and a thermometer. Pass the delivery-tube through a 'water jacket,' J, kept cool substantially as shown. Heat the liequid in the flask unitl it just boils, and taste the distilled water that collects in R." -Avery 1895

Distilation

"Partly fill with strong brine a Florence glask the cork of which carries a delivery-tube and a thermometer.…

"If an object is placed before a plane mirror, a virtual image appears behind the mirror. Each point of this image seems to be as far behind the mirror as the corresponding point of the object is in front of the mirror. Hence, images seen in still, clear, water are inverted." -Avery 1895

Plane Mirror

"If an object is placed before a plane mirror, a virtual image appears behind the mirror. Each point…

"LA represents a ray of light propagated in air, falling obliquely upon the surface of the water at A, and deviated by the water from AE to AK." -Avery 1895

Refraction of Light Between Air and Water

"LA represents a ray of light propagated in air, falling obliquely upon the surface of the water at…

"If the ray passes in the opposite direction, i.e., from water into air, the process is the reverse of that just indicated. Let KA represent the incident ray." -Avery 1895

Refraction of Light Between Water and Air

"If the ray passes in the opposite direction, i.e., from water into air, the process is the reverse…

"An apparatus used for electrolysis of water." -Avery 1895

Electrolysis

"An apparatus used for electrolysis of water." -Avery 1895

"An apparatus setup for fractional distillation of water." —The Encyclopedia Britannica 1910

Apparatus Used for Fractional Distillation

"An apparatus setup for fractional distillation of water." —The Encyclopedia Britannica 1910

"If it be required to separate the helium which is often found in the gases given off by a thermal spring, they are subjected to the action of charcoal cooled with liquid air. The result is the absoption of the less volatile constituents, i.e., all except hydrogen and helium. The gaseous residue, with the additon of oxygen is then sparked, and the water thus formed is removed together with the excess oxygen to leave only helium." —The Encyclopedia Britannica 1910

Apparatus Used to Seperate Volatile Gases

"If it be required to separate the helium which is often found in the gases given off by a thermal spring,…

Apparatus used to boil water into steam.

Steam Boiler

Apparatus used to boil water into steam.

"The vessel a is fitted with a wooden bock of the same size as, and free to move in, the cylinder; the vessel b is filled with water, whose depth is the same as the length of the wooden block in a. When a pressure is applied to a, the pressure will be transmitted to the bottom unchanged. However, when the same pressure is applied to b, the pressure is transmitted everywhere, as the molecules of water are free to move." —Hallock 1905

Water versus Wood Pressure

"The vessel a is fitted with a wooden bock of the same size as, and free to move in, the cylinder; the…

"Let the are of the piston a be 20 square inches; of b, 7 sq. in.; of c, 1 sq. in.; of d, 6 sq. in.; of e, 8 sq. in; and of f, 4 sq. in. If... a force of five pounds be applied at c, a pressure of five pounds per square inch will be transmitted in all directions, and in order that there shall be no movement, the required pressure must be applied by all the other pistons in proportion." —Hallock 1905

Water Pressure Demonstration

"Let the are of the piston a be 20 square inches; of b, 7 sq. in.; of c, 1 sq. in.; of d, 6 sq. in.;…

"...let the area of the piston a be 1 square inch; of b, 40 square inches. According to Pascal's law, 1 pound placed on a will balance 40 pounds placed on b." —Hallock 1905

Pascal's Law and Water Pressure

"...let the area of the piston a be 1 square inch; of b, 40 square inches. According to Pascal's law,…

"From on pan suspend a hollow cylinder of metal t, and below that a solid cylinder a of the same size as the hollow part of the upper cylinder. Put two weights in the other scale pan until they sxactly balance the two cylinders. If a be immersed in water, te scale pan containing the weights will descend, showing that a has lost some of its weight. Now fill t with water, and the volume of water that can be poured into t will equal that displaced by a. The scale pan that contains the weights will gradually rise until t is filled, when the scales will balance again." —Hallock 1905

Archimedes Principle

"From on pan suspend a hollow cylinder of metal t, and below that a solid cylinder a of the same size…

"The suction pump uses suction, water pressure and one-way valves to suction water from a well or other source, and to expel water through A." —Hallock 1905

Suction Pump

"The suction pump uses suction, water pressure and one-way valves to suction water from a well or other…

"In some cases it is desired to raise water higher than it can be forced by the pressure of the atmosphere into the chamber of a simple suction pump. To accomplish this the pump chamber with its bucket and valves are set at a distance above the supply not exceeding that to which the air will successfully force the water. A closed pipe, P', called the delivery, or discharge, pipe, is then led from the upper part of the chamber to the point where it is desired to deliver the water." —Hallock 1905

Lifting Pump

"In some cases it is desired to raise water higher than it can be forced by the pressure of the atmosphere…

"As the piston ascends, as shown in the left-hand figure, the pressure of the atmosphere forces the water up the suction pipe P; the water opens the suction valve V and flows into the pump cylinder. When the piston moves down, as shown in the right-hand figure, the suction valve is closed and the delivery valve V' opened. The water in the pump cylinder is now forced up the delivery pipe P'." —Hallock 1905

Forcing Pump

"As the piston ascends, as shown in the left-hand figure, the pressure of the atmosphere forces the…

"A double-acting pump of the piston pattern is shown [here]. Such a pump has two sets of suction valves and delivery valves, one set for each side of the piston. With the piston moving in the direction of the arrow, the pressure of the atmosphere forces the water up the suction pipe P into the left-hand end of the pump cylinder, the left-hand suction valve opens and the left-hand delivery valve is closed...The water now flows up the delivery pipe P'." —Hallock 1905

Double-acting Force Pump

"A double-acting pump of the piston pattern is shown [here]. Such a pump has two sets of suction valves…

"The hydraulic ram uses alternating water pressure, air pressure, and suction to provide a steady stream of water through the delivery pipe, e." —Hallock 1905

Hydraulic Water Ram

"The hydraulic ram uses alternating water pressure, air pressure, and suction to provide a steady stream…

"Steam pumps are force pumps operated by steam acting on the piston of a steam engine directly connected to the pump, and in many cases cast with the pump. A section of a double-acting steam pump, showing the steam and water cylinders, with other details, is illustrated [here]." —Hallock 1905

Steam Pump

"Steam pumps are force pumps operated by steam acting on the piston of a steam engine directly connected…

"Illustration showing various forms of the siphon." —Hallock 1905

Various Siphons

"Illustration showing various forms of the siphon." —Hallock 1905

"Method of drying out a generator by short-circuiting the armature leads through a water rheostat." —Croft 1920

Method For Drying Out a Generator

"Method of drying out a generator by short-circuiting the armature leads through a water rheostat."…

"...a certain amount of salt may be successfully dropped into a tumbler brim-full of water without causing it to overflow. The particles of water, which are supposed to be globular, do not everywhere touch each other, and the particles of salt are accommodated in the interstices between them." —Quackenbos 1859

Water with Salt Molecules

"...a certain amount of salt may be successfully dropped into a tumbler brim-full of water without causing…

"AB is a wheel with a broad rim, or felly. A wine glass partly filled with water is placed on the inner surface of the felly, and the wheel is then made to revolve rapidly round the axle O. If the proper amount of motion be communicated to the wheel, not only will the wine glass keep its place on the felly, but the water also will remain in it..." —Quackenbos 1859

Centrifugal Force Demonstration

"AB is a wheel with a broad rim, or felly. A wine glass partly filled with water is placed on the inner…

"A still more common form, much used in drawing water from wells and loaded buckets from mines, is shown [here]. Instead of a wheel, we have here a winch, or handle, attached to the axle." —Quackenbos 1859

Winch

"A still more common form, much used in drawing water from wells and loaded buckets from mines, is shown…